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Winning (the act of dominating) has been associated with an increase in T from pre to post-competition (see Elias, 1981; Gladue, Boehler, & McCaul, 1989; Mazur & Booth, 1998). mexican pharmacy steroids Weight watchers meals. Hence, increased levels of T in dominant samples might be a result rather than a cause, although this finding has not been universally supported (see Suay et al. , 1999, for instance). In addition, some researchers have reported pre-contest rises in T, suggesting an anticipation of future need. mexican pharmacy steroids Impact nutrition. This anticipatory rise in endogenous T suggests a system whereby a classically conditioned expectation exerts its influence, a system with implications for psychological theories of the AAS/aggression relationship. In summary, the relationship between endogenous T and aggression is complex. As with most relationships between physiology and complex behavior, it reflects a "biopsychosocial" process, involving an interaction between the biological substrate of hormonal action, the psychology of the individual, and the social environment in which behavior occurs. mexican pharmacy steroids Weight loss systems. Additionally, inconsistent definitions and operationalizations (e. g. , discriminating dominance from aggression), the bi-directional effects of T and dominance/aggression, and the lack of longitudinal studies of the T/aggression link in large representative samples, are a few of the factors that complicate the examination of this relationship. AAS and aggression in humansEven a cursory search of the psychological and psychiatric literature finds it replete with empirical reports and case studies suggesting that AAS users score more highly than the norm on personality scales measuring hostility. Regardless of this seeming consensus, it has recently been acknowledged that, although AAS use and aggression are correlated, the full extent and nature of the relationship remains unexplained and a clear inference of causality cannot be drawn (Beel, Maycock, & McLean, 1998). For instance, Riem and Hursey (1995) presaged Dabbs' (1996) sentiments regarding T and aggression, but in relation to AAS use, commenting that "In sum, not all AAS users exhibit aggressive behavior, even though all experience increases in sex steroids (p. 250). " Although AAS use is reportedly widespread (see Brower, 1992), relatively few AAS users exhibit overtly aggressive behavior (rage). Factors that might underlie this variability will be discussed later in this series. The literature on endogenous T and aggression/hostility provides little assistance in clarifying the potential AAS/aggression relationship in humans for a number of reasons. First, in contrast to endogenous T, AAS use is a behavioral choice. Hence, it is not randomly distributed within the population and AAS users are likely to differ from nonusers. Secondly, AAS ingestion and injection are not simply physical or chemical events, but also behavioral events, part of a sub-culture and a ritual. The literature on AAS use and aggression encompasses a range of research methods. As with most drug use literature, it is heavily laden with descriptive statistics. For example, lifetime prevalence of AAS use has been reported as 9. 1% for males in Great Britain (Korkia & Stimson, 1997).
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