IndianHistory

Indian History
(Ancient)
HARSHAVARDHAN

HARSHAVARDHAN
Hiuen Tsang Prince of pilgrim or present sakyamuni describes about the reign of Harsha in detail. He had a special regard for Harsha. He tells us that Harsha was unparralleled in the discharge of his administration duties.He spent most of the years in making tours of inspection throughout his dominions. In this way , he set a good example to his ministers and also the kings who were his vassals.
From the available information, it can be said that the ancestors of Harsha ruled over the kingdom of Sharisrara - modern Thanesar in Haryana. And the kingdom was founded by Pushpabhati. No details about his successors are available. However the chronology again becomes clear with Prabhakar Vardhan who truly can be regarded as the 1st ruler in the dynasty of Pushpabhati's.

The accession of Harsha, being the younger son of Prabhakar Vardhan is an interesting account . After ascending the throne Harsha fought many wars and ruled over a large empire . According to Hiuen Tsang " he reduced the neighbouring states to subjection, invaded those who had refused allegiance and ultimately brought the Five Indies of Saurashtra, Kaniya Kubja , Gauda , Nithial and Orissa under allegiance".

Thus Harsha combines in him the military genius of Chandragupta Maurya, benevolence of Ashoka , statesmanship of Samudragupta and the enlightened character of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
Northern Bharat after Harsha however saw a period of chaos and confusion. This period is marked by the origin of the Rajputs. There were still many dynasties that proved their existence capable after the death of Harsha. They have been dealt with separately. Those dynasties were the Rashtrakutas , the Chalukyas ,the Pallavas , the Cholas and the Dandyas.
From seventh century onwards, the socio- religious conditions in Bharat witnessed changes. A large number of new castes were created. Hinduism in the form of Shaivism and Vaishnavism prominently dominated the field. Buddhism however was confined only to the territories of the Pala kings in Bengal and Bihar . Buddhism and Jainism were being followed by isolated groups in northern Bharat . It will be interesting to know that although the Pallavas were staunch Buddhists, they had employed Brahmans at their religious ceremonies. By now even Buddhism and Jainism had developed theistic tendencies . Idol worshipping had started.
Buddha and Mahavira/Jinas by then were accepted as incarnations of Vishnu . However the emergence of Tantric cult profoundly changed all the religions . Shaivism attained utmost importance and got royal patronage.
As far as religious architecture is concerned, the Hindu Kings competed with one another in the magnificence and number of temples. Thousands of artisans were despatched from ordinary pursuits to the work of embellishment of temple service in stone, bronze, and precious metals.
That is why it will be appropriate to state that from Harsha Vardhan till the end of Cholas, Bharat witnessed a heterogeneous character . People of different religions and castes started adapting each other and shedding away what was not required.
All the three prominent religions , Brahmanism , Buddhism and Jainism underwent changes . While Vedic religion lost its popularity,
Bhagavatism took the place. As far as Buddhism is concerned , Mahayan developed as a different sect.
The most important feature of this period was the thriving trade between Bharat and western world . Settlement of foreigners in Bharat gave impetus to trade . It was during this that the Roman Empire emerged as a paramount power in the western world and if eventually provided a grand platform for flourishing trade with Bharat. As far as administration is concerned , there was no substantial change in the system from that of the Mauryans.
HARSHAVARDHAN AND THE PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY
In the history of India we know some figures that were great in the art of war and greater still in the art of peace. Harshavardhan, the celebrated Pushyabhuti king was one of them.
We luckily have some authentic sources of the period of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. Our knowledge here is far more precise than any earlier dynastic history.

Hiuen Tsang’s account, Bana’s Harshacharit, the numismatic and epigraphic evidences give a full picture of the dynasty. The Madhuban copper plate inscription, Sonpat copper seal inscription, Banskhera copper plate inscription, and Nalanda clay seals inscriptions throw some light on this dynasty.
Towards the close of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th C. A.D. the Pushyabhuti dynasty came in power in Thaneswar. The Huna invasion and the fall of the Guptas created political confusion in north India. According to Banabhatt, Pushyabhuti founded this dynasty. The first important king of this dynasty was Prabhakaravardhan (580-605 A.D.) In the epigraphs and seals, before Prabhakaravardhan, three kings ruled the state. We only know the names of these kings. No details are available of their rule. Naravardhan, Maharaja Rajyavardhan and Maharaja Adityavardhan ruled before Prabhakaravardhan.
Pravakaravardhan (580-605 A.D.)
The Pushyabhuti family came to the power after the Huna invasion. Prabhakaravardhan was the first important ruler of this dynasty. He assumed the high sounding title of Maharajadhiraja. Under him Thaneswar became an empire. He fought the Gurjaras and the Hunas. Prabhakarvardhan extended his rule as far as Malava and Gujarat. He died fighting with the Hunas in 605 A.D.
Rajyavardhan (605-606 A.D.)
After the death of Prabhakaravardhan his elder son Rajyavardhan came to the ancestral throne. He reigned for a little over one year. During this period, he confronted with lots of problems. The Maukhari king Grahavarman assassinated his brother-in-law. Grahavarman imprisoned his sister Rajashree with the help of Devagupta of Malava and Shashanka of Gauda. Rajyavardhan inflicted a crushing defeat on Devagupta. Unfortunately, he was killed by Shashank of Gauda.
Harshavardhan (606-A.D.)
Harshavardhan started his reign at the age of sixteen. The throne of Thaneswar was in great trouble at this time. But Harsha’s statesmanship enabled him to rule out the difficulties. He raised the small principality of Thaneswar to the most formidable kingdom of north India of his time.

In 606 A.D. Harsha ascended his ancestral throne of Thaneswar. Bana informs us that on hearing the news of his brother’s death he immediately assumed sovereignty. It was a Maukhari kingdom. There is also no evidence that Kanauj came under his rule at the time of his accession to the throne of Thaneswar.
Hiuen Tsang gives us a contrary picture. His view is that after the death of Rajyavardhan, the statesmen of Kanauj invited Harsha. There is one possibility that, Grahavarman of Kanauj left behind widowed queen Rajashree only with no heir. Hence the spokesmen of Kanauj may have requested Harsha to accept the throne.

However, according to Bana, a noble named Gupta ascended the throne of Kanauj after the death of Grahavarman. The Nalanda seal discloses that Grahavarman had a younger brother whose name was probably Surasena. According to Dr R.C. Majumdar, Surasena succeeded to the throne of his elder brother. This also washes away the theory of Hiuen Tsang that Harsha ascended the throne of Kanauj immediately after the death of Grahavarman.
All this goes against the theory of Hiuen Tsang. In fact, it is proved by now that he took the crown of Kanauj after six years of his accession.
The genesis of his statecraft was: an advisory body called mantriparishad, the division of the empire into several bhuktis, the state share of the produce fixed to 1/6th and a severe penal code.
Harsha’s Conquests
Harsha ascended the throne with lot of difficulties. His elder brother Rajyavardhan was killed. Grahavarman, Harsha’s brother-in-law, lost his life. Harsha’s sister Rajashree was imprisoned by the enemies. Harsha’s immediate task was to rescue his sister and to teach Shashank a lesson.
According to Bana, Harsha decided to launch campaigns for digvijay. He sent an ultimatum to all the kings to either surrender or fight.
Bana, the court poet of Harsha wrote Harshacharit, a biography of Harsha. Accordingly, Harsha and Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa marched against Shashanka. Harsha was in a better position to meet Sananka’s army. Receiveing a messege, Harsha went to Vindhya Mountains in search of his sister, Rajashree. Rajashree was about to commit suicide. But Harsha reached in time.
This narration of Bana is an exaggeration. Neither Rajashree could go to Vindhya, nor Harsha could arrive at the appropriate moment to save her.

After rescuing Rajashree, Harsha joined the army to destroy Shashank. What exactly happened to Shashank is not very clear. According to Dr R.C. Majumdar Shashank probably placed the younger brother of Grahavarman on the throne. To occupy Kanauj Harsha would have had to oust him from the throne.
Even after Shashank’s withdrawal from Kanauj, the hostility between Harshavardhan and Shashank did not end. Dr Majumdar opines that Shashank ruled with full power upto 619 A.D. or even more
The Second Campaign
Harsha’s first campaign against Shashank was a failure so far the permanent results were concerned. Even in the second campaign, Shashank did not lose any of his territories. Some scholars suggest that the combined armies of Harshavardhan and Bhaskaravarman between 619 and 629 A.D must have defeated him. But according to Dr Majumdar Shashank reigned in full glory till his death.
After Shashank’s death, Harsha conquered Magadh, West Bengal, Orissa and Kangada. It is not definitely known whether Harsha ruled over the other parts of Bengal.
Harsha’s Campaign in Western India
Prabhakaravardhan, the father of Harsha had to face hostility from Lata i.e. Gujarat, Malava and Gurjaras. Harsha had to face the legacy of their hostility.
The kingdom of Vallabhi in Gujarat was a formidable power. Although in the first encounter Harsha defeated the king of Vallabhi, he regained power with the help of Dada II, the Gurjara king of Broach.
The identity of this king of Vallabhi is not known or certain but he was most probably Dhruvasen II or Dhruvabhatt.
The hostilities ended in the marriage of Harsha’s daughter with Dhruvabhatt. Later, Vallabhi became a subordinate ally of Harsha.
Harsha’s War with the Chalukyas
Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king of Vatapi, wished to become the lord of the south. The old enemies of Thaneswar like Lata (Gujarat), Malavas and Gurjaras became Pulakesin’s feudatories. This resulted in Harsha’s war with Pulakesin II.
Harsha’s War with Pulakesin II
According to Hiuen Tsang, in order to smash Pulakesin, Harsha raised a vast army. He personally conducted the campaign against Pulakesin.
Acceding to Dr. V.A. Smith, Harsha led his army southward upto the Narmada. There he met Pulakesin. He could not cross the Narmada.
Dr R.C. Majumdar seriously contests this. Dr. Majumdar suggests that Harsha’s empire did not extend upto the Narmada, and other feudatories of Pulakesin must have fought with him earlier.
HIUEN - TSANG’S ACCOUNT OF INDIA
Hiuen-Tsang (or Yuan Chwang), a Chinese Pilgrim, visited India during the reign of Harsha. His object was to secure authentic Buddhist scriptures and visit places of Buddhist interest. From Western China he reached Gandhara in 630 A.D. via Tashkand and Samerkand.

Hiuen Tsang stayed for almost 15 years (630-645 A.D.) in India. He visited almost every province in the vast country. He returned to his country with lots of material concerned with the Buddhist faith.
His experience is recorded in his book Si-Yu-ki or the ‘Records of the Western World’. This book throws a flood of light on the political, Social, religious and economic conditions of India during the reign of Harsha.
From Hiuen-Tsang’s account the following important information regarding the conditions of India can be rendered.
About Harsha and his Capital
Hiuen Tsang spend about eight years in Harsha’s dominions. According to him, Harsha was a generous king. Harsha aimed at high ideals of kingship. He worked hard to promote the welfare of the people.

In the words of Hiuen-Tsang, “He was indefatigable and forgot sleep and food in the discharge of his duties. He was the busiest of man and devoted all his time to promote the welfare of his people.”
Hiuen-Tsang was impressed by Harsha’s capital Kanauj. He comments on the lofty structures, splendid structures, buildings, beautiful gardens and tanks of clean water. The flowers and fruits and valuable exotic merchandise were available in large quantities.
The inhabitants, Hiuen-Tsang records, were well off and content. Some families were particularly wealthy. Hiuen Tsang says, “The people are honest and sincere. They are noble and gracious in appearance.”
Harsha’s Administration
The Chinese pilgrim was impressed by Harsha ‘s administration. Harsha personally visited the various parts of his empire. Hiuen-Tsang observes, “If there was any irregularity in the manners of the people of the cities, Harsha went amongst them”.
Hiuen-Tsang further records the people live together in harmony. The defaulters of the state’s law were imprisoned without any corporal punishments. They are discarded from the community. “In the trial of criminals”, Hiuen-Tsang writes, “No torture is used”.
The roads were, however, not as safe as they had been in Fahien’s times. Hiuen-Tsang himself was robbed more than once. Criminal law was severe. The offenders were punished by imprisonment, mutilation of limbs and minor offences by fines. Trial by ordeal was also in vogue.
Hiuen-Tsang records that the Government was tolerant in case of taxation and revenue collection. The people were peacefully engaged in the cultivation of land. The land tax did not exceed 1/4th of the total produce. Taxes were moderate and light. The forced labour upon public works was also paid-for.
According to Hiuen-Tsang, there was a special department of keeping records of all the important events of the state.
The Chinese pilgrim states that Harsha maintained a powerful and well-equipped army. It comprised of 50,000 infantry, 6000 elephants and 1,00,000 horsemen.
Socio-Economic Conditions
Hiuen-Tsang described the people of the country as trustworthy and gentle. He has also formed an overall opinion of Indians. According to him, “The people do not practice treachery and abide by their oaths.”
Hiuen-Tsang observed the cleanliness and purity of diet. In their diet, onions and garlic were not used. Meat was forbidden. The common food comprised milk, ghee, granulated sugar, sugar candy, cakes and parched grain with mustard oil.
Hiuen-Tsang mentions that the division of the society was based on caste. Concept of untouchables was in existent. Chandellas or the Sudras had to reside outside the city or village. The Brahmins were held in the highest esteem The Chinese pilgrim noticed that the kings were generally Kshatriyas. There were no inter-caste marriages according to Hiuen-Tsang.
Women were respected in general. Women of higher classes went in the education Princess Rajashree was educated enough to follow Hiuen-Tsang’s discourse. Early marriages were the order of the day. The custom of Sati was known.
Under Harsha both internal and external trade flourished. It was further increased the centralization of the vast territory under one political leadership. India continued to have trade and cultural contacts with the East ad West.
As regards the material conditions of the people Hiuen-Tsang reports that “taxes are light and tradesmen go to and fro bartering their merchandise after paying light duties at ferries and barrier stations.” While discussing the prosperity, he mentions about several gold status of Buddha.
Religion
Hiuen-Tsang’s mission to come to India was a sacred and spiritual one. He was basically interested in Mahayana Buddhism only. But he has also commented on the conditions of the other Buddhist schools and sects. He gives us a detailed account of the Brahmanical system of religion and culture as well.
Hiuen-Tsang informs us that the foreigners then knew India as the ‘Country of Brahmins’. He explains about this predominance of Brahmanism further. Hiuen-Tsang noticed that Sanskrit was the language of the cultured classes. Even the most famous Buddhist teachers used this language.
Alongside Brahmanism, there flourished Buddhism too, especially the Mahayana school. Hiuen-Tsang has noted that at every center of Buddhism, monks of both sects Mahayana and Hinayana lived side by side.
Buddhism, during Harsha’s time, according to Hiuen-Tsang, though on the decline, was represented by as many as 18 different sects.
Assembly at Kanauj
The Assembly witnessed by Hiuen-Tsang was held at Kanauj. The main aim of this assembly was to give publicity to Hiuen-Tsang exposition of Mahayanism.

The Assembly lasted for 23 days. As a conclusion of the Assembly, Harsha offered Hiuen-Tsang 10,000 pieces of gold 30,000 pieces of silver and 100 garments of superior cotton, in recognition of his merits. Hiuen-Tsang mentioned that he declined the gifts.
Assembly at Prayag
Hiuen Tsang gives a detailed account of the assembly held by Harsha. After Kanauj, another assembly was called at Prayag (Allahabad) for the distribution of Royal charities. Harsha distributed all his wealth to men of all religions.
Huein-Tsang reports that at the end of it ‘The accumulation of five years was exhausted’. Except the military belongings, which were necessary for maintaining order and protecting the royal estate, nothing remained.
Education:
Education, according to Hiuen-Tsang, was widespread and vigorous. In north India, there were a number of important centers of learning. Kashmir was a great center of Buddhism. Hiuen-Tsang spent two years there studying certain Sutras and Sastras. In addition, Vallabhi was also a great center of learning. Cities like Kanauj, Prayag and Jalandhar were connected with both state and religious activities.
The most distinguished center of learning in this period was the famous University of Nalanda. Hiuen-Tsang’s detailed account of this university has shed much light on the literary activities of this period.

According to Hiuen-Tsang, the University of Nalanda had 10,000 students on its roll. The students were provided with free education, free boarding and lodging. They were given clothes, bedding and medicine.
The University was a center of advanced learning and thus its admission was very strict. Only 2 or 3 out of 10 students being able to pass it.
There were 1,500 teachers at the university who delivered number of different discourses on different subjects. While the University specialized in the study of Mahayana doctrines, its curriculum also included Buddhist and Hindu religions as well. The secular subjects taught were- medicine, astronomy, archery etc. Debates and discussions were a major part of the intellectual life of Nalanda University.
Thus, though exaggerated, we get a clear picture of Harsha’s reign during Hiuen Tsang’s stay. There is a possibility, that as a foreigner, he might have misunderstood many things. But we can compare Hiuen Tsang’s accounts to other sources like Harshacharit of Bana and some inscriptions. This will be helpful in understanding the socio-religious, economic and general conditions during Harsha’s reign.
The extent of Harsha’s Empire
Contemporary writers like Hiuen Tsang and Bana hold that Harsha had vast empire. According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha waged constant wars. In six years he became “the lord of five Indias”. The five Indias mentioned by Hiuen Tsang are: Punjab, Kanauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
According to Bana, Harsha started on a digvijay or world conquest. He issued a proclamation throughout India asking all the kings either or accept his sovereignty or to fight.
The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II described Harsha as ‘sakalottarapathanatha’ (lord of the whole of north India).
According to Dr K.M. Panikkar considered that Harsha’s empire extended from Kamarupa to Kashmir and from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas.

We can conclude that Harsha’s empire consisted of two groups of territories. Territories that he inherited and the territories he conquered himself.
The ancestral kingdom of Thaneswar and the state of Kanauj fall in the first category. To these he added some small principalities in the north and in the west. Hence Harsha’s empire was comprised of Eastern Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
Towards the close of his reign Harsha annexed Magadh, Orissa, Kangada (Ganjam) and possibly West Bengal. If these territories are to be included, his dominion would be Eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa. This also fits in with the statement of Hiuen Tsang that Harsha was the “Lord of five Indias.”
Harsha’s Relations with China
According to Chinese historians, Harsha had friendly relations with China. In 641 A.D. Harsha sent an ambassador to Chinese emperor. In return, the emperor dispatched an envoy with a royal patent urging Harsha to submit to him. Harsha accepted it with bent knees and placed it on his head.
Indian historian rejects this incident, as Harsha could not attain any benefit from such a distant country.

In 643 A.D. a second embassy under Wang-Hiuen-Tsang arrived at the court of Harsha. Harsha received the embassy with great respect and honour.
Harsha’s Religion
From the epigraphic and numismatic records we learn that Harsha was a worshipper of Siva at least upto 631 A.D. But Hiuen Tsang describes Harsha as a devout Buddhist. Historians believe that Harsha was a devotee of Surya, Siva and Buddha.
Towards the end, Harsha began to support the Mahayana form of Buddhism. He discarded injury to animals. Harsha built benevolent institutions for the travelers, sick and poor. He built a large number of monasteries and stupas on the bank of the Ganges.
The Religious Assemblies
Harsha convened a religious assembly in Kanauj. Twenty kings including Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa attended this assembly. A large number of Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmancal scholars gathered in Kanauj.

A golden statue of Buddha was housed in a monastery, which was 100 ft high. A small statue of Buddha 3 ft. high was taken out in a colorful procession headed by Harsha, Bhaskaravarman and twenty other kings.
In a ceremony, the title of “Lord of Discussion” was given to Hiuen Tsang. A festival called Mahamokshaparishad at Prayag followed this. Hiuen Tsang gives us a detailed account of the festival. Accordingly, during the four day long festival, Harsha gave a huge amount of charity. The king took off his personal ornaments and dresses and wore an old and ordinary garment offered to him by his sister, Rajashree. After that he paid worship to ‘the Buddhas of the ten regions’.

A Patron of Literary Activities
One-fourth of the State revenue was spent for the cause of literature and men of letter. Banabhatta, the celebrated author of the Harshacharit and Kadambari was Harsha’s court-poet.
Harsha himself was a writer of rare skill. This is evident form his dramatic works like Priyadarsika, Ratnavali and Nagananda. These works give him a high place in the cultural history of India.
Nalanda University constitutes a monument of Harsha’s educational activities. This was the biggest learning center in Ancient India.
Harsha propped up the decaying structure of the Guptas. He exchanged embassies with China and with Persia as well. At the religious assembly of Kanauj, as many as twenty kings of India came. They were either as friends or as vassal kings.

RASHTRAKUTAS, CHALUKYAS & PALLAVAS

The Rashtrakutas, in their later inscriptions, confirm their origin to the Yadav race of the North. Other records connect them with the Telegu clans. It is very likely that, like Peshwas, this name was an official designation.

The founder of this line of rulers was Dantidurga. He fought his way ahead by overthrowing Kirtivarman II Chalukya. With the overthrow of the main branch of the Chalukyas, the sovereignty of the Deccan passed to the Rashtrakutas.
The Rashtrakuta rulers retained it for nearly 225 years. Dantidurga, after his occupation of Vatapi, extended his area covering Kanchi, Kalinga, Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Tanka.

He is reported to have performed Hiranyagarbha at Ujjayini. He assumed titles like Maharajadhiraja, Paramesvara, Paramabhattaraka. He died some time before A.D. 758. A branch of this family founded a principality in Gujarat.

Krishna I succeeded Dantidurga. The famous monolithic temple at Ellor (Aurangabad district, Maharashtra) was the creation of his period. It is one of the most marvelous and extensive rock-cut shrines.
Krishna I was succeeded by his son Govinda II. He extended his power from the Vindhya mountains and Malwa in the north to Kanchi in the south. The Rashtrakutas had reached its peak at the close of his reign. The Gangas, the Pallavas, and Dharmapala, all either surrendered or were overthrown. The Rashtrakuta power remained unchallenged. Govinda II chose Govinda III, the ablest amongst his sons as his successor.
Govinda III ascended the throne in A.D. 793. Within two years, he consolidated his position in the South. He eliminated twelve kings, headed by his brother Stamba.
He boldly executed northern expedition as well. He humbled the Pratihara and Pala rulers.
In his absence from the North, the Pallava, Pandya, Kerala and Ganga rulers formed a confederacy against him. Govinda III marched against them and occupied Kanchi. He overpowered the united armies.

Govinda III’s son Sarva succeeded him in 814 A.D. He is also known as Amoghavarsha. He had a long reign of more than sixty years till 877A.D. This period was spent in constant war with the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. The Gangas of Kalinga were also one of his biggest enemies. Amoghavarsha established peace and order in his kingdom. He encouraged art and literature. Amoghavarsha looked after the welfare of his people. He transferred his capital from Nasik to Manyakheta. The Arab writer Sulaiman (A.D. 851) credits him as the fourth great king of the world after the Khalifa of Baghdad, the Emperor of China and Constantinople.
Amoghavarsha I died in A.D. 878. His son and successor Krishna II waged a war against the Pratiharas and the eastern Chalukyas. He must have ruled till A.D. 888. In most of battles he was defeated.
The next ruler Indra III had military qualities of Govinda III. Soon after his accession in A.D. 914, he declared war against the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Mahipala. He is reported to have captured Kanauj temporarily.
In his reign the war with the Vengis continued. Indra III died sometime after A.D. 927. The next ruler in the line of Rashtrakutas was Amoghavarsha II.
Amoghvarsha’s younger brother Govinda IV deprived him of his throne. He was tyrannical and unpopular. Govinda IV was displaced by Amoghavarsha III. He ascended the throne in A.D. 936.

The throne then passed on to Akalvarsha. Soon after his accession, he planned an invasion against the Chola king Parantaka. He captured the important cities of Kanchi and Tanjore sometime in A.D. 943.
Akalvarsha led an expedition in the North as well. He seems to have occupied Ujjayini of the Paramara ruler Siyaka. He succeeded in bringing Vengi under his control. He thus became the lord of the whole of the Deccan. He called himself as the
sakala-dakshina-dig-adhipati. He died in A.D. 967.
Akalvarsha was succeeded by his younger brother Khottiga. He was an old man. He could not withhold the attack of the Paramara ruler. The Rashtrakuta capital was captured and plundered.
The old ruler died with a broken heart and was succeeded by his nephew Karkka II. The Rashtrakuta strength, by now, was completely shattered.

The Chalukya feudatory Taila II revolted against the authority of Karkka. He succeeded in crushing his forces in A.D. 974. Taila restored the old family glory. He founded the dynasty known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani. This dynasty lasted for nearly two and a quarter centuries.
With the fall of the last Rashtrakuta ruler, Taila founded the second Chalukya dynasty. It was named after the new capital Kalyani (modern Kalyan in Maharashtra). Taila ruled for 24 years.

He restored the former glory of the Chalukya family. He sent his general Barappa to Lara to recover the Chalukyan territories. He himself led campaigns against Malwa. However, Munja, the Paramara ruler, defeated him many times.
Taila died in A.D. 995. He was succeeded by his son Satyasrava. During his reign, the Chalukya kingdom suffered heavily. The Chola king, Rajaraja, overran the country with a vast army.

There were repeated Chola invasions until about A.D. 1021.
The Chalukyas under Somesvara I defeated the Chola ruler Rajadhiraja in A.D. 1052. Someshvara I stormed both Dhara in Malwa and Kanchi in the South. He defeated the Chedi king Karna.

The late Chalukya rulers include Vikramaditya VI, the hero of Bilhana’s historical poem Vikramanka-devacharita. After his death, Chalukya power declined. During the reign of Taila III, the commander-n-chief, Bijjala revolted and obtained possession of the greater part of the kingdom.
Somesvara IV was able to recover his ancestral kingdom from the hands of Bijjala’s successor. However, the Yadavas of Deogiri on the west, and the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra on the south contributed to the end of the Chalukyan dynasty.
The Pallavas constitute an important place in the cultural history of south India. The process of ‘Aryanisation’ of south India was completed during the Pallava rule.
The Pallavas played an important role in south India between the 6th and the 9th century A.D. This dynasty ruled over the regions of Kanchi after the fall of the Satavahanas. For six long centuries the Pallavas constituted the main stream of the cultural life of India.
Origin
The origin of the Pallavas is lost in obscurity. There are various ideas regarding their origins. The most acceptable theory is the Brahmana origin of the Pallavas. It is attested by their Sanskrit and Prakrit literature and their performance of Ashvamedh sacrifice.

However it is possible that the Pallavas were a composition of various elements, partly foreign, partly south and partly north Indian Brahmanas. The brahmanas might have subjugated the others later converted themselves to Kshatriya clan.
The Pallava Kings
Skandavarman
The Pallavas occupied the city of Kanchi around which the whole Pallava kingdom evolved. The earliest of the Pallava kings was Siva-Skandavarman. He ruled from about the beginning of the fourth century A.D. Extended his rule from the Krishna to South Pennar and Berar district.
Vishnugupta was the next prominent king of the Pallavas. He reigned from A.D.350 to 375 .He was defeated at the hands of Samudragupta.
Simhavarman was another early Pallava king, who came to power in 436. A.D. He was probably a Buddhist.
Simhavishnu - There is a have a considerable gap until we find a great monarch Simhavishnu Avanisimha (lion of the earth). He came to the throne in 575 A.D. He extended his dominion up to the river Kaveri. Simhavishnu defeated the kings of Ceylon, Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas.
Mahendravarman I - Simhavishnu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman I, who reigned from A.D. 600 to 630. He was defeated by Chalukya king Pulakesin II. During his reign the rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas started over the supremacy in the Deccan.
He built temples of Brahma, Ishvara and Vishnu. Mahendravarman I excavated many rock temples in Trichinapally, Chingleput and Arcot districts.
Narasimhavarman -The son and successor of Mahendravarman I, Narsimhavarman I ruled from A.D. 630 to 668. He sent two naval expeditions against Ceylon. But his greatest achievement was the three successive triumphs over the Chalukya king Pulakesin II.
He was a great patron of art and literature. The township on the coast called Mahabalipuram was built by him. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang has given a clear picture of the political and religious life of the Pallavas.
Mahendra varman II -Narsimhvarman I was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II. He had an insignificant reign for two years from A.D.668 to 670.

Paramesvarvarman I now ascended the throne and from A.D. c. 670 to c.695. During his reign the rivalry with the Chalukyas was renewed. The Chalukya king Vikramaditya I conquered and occupied Kanchi.

Narsimhavarman II succeeded his father Paramesvarman I. He was a peace-loving ruler. He built up the Kailashnatha temple at Kanchi. He appointed the great Sanskrit writer Dandin in his court.

Parmesvarvarman II -Narasimhavarman II’s son Parmesvarvarman II ruled from A.D. 722 to 730. He had to face an invasion of the Chalukya princes.

Nandivarman II was the next renowned king of this dynasty. He ruled from 730 to 800 A.D. He had to face the enemity of the Chalukyas, the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. Despite all this, Nandivarman not only was able to keep his territory intact, but also added some to his domain.
Nandivarman II was a builder of several temples. He patronized eminent scholars. He was a worshipper of Vishnu. After him the prosperity of the Pallavas began to fritter away.
Dantivarman - who succeeded Nandivarman II ruled from 746 to 840 A.D. During his reign the Pandyas and the Rashtrkutas defeated the Pallavas.

Nandivarman III -This defeat was temporarily recouped by Nandivarman III. However, the Pandyas defeated him.
Aparajita - The last king of the Pallavas was Aparajita. With the help of the Cholas he tried to revive the energy of the Pallavas. But in 891 A.D., the Chola king Aditya completely defeated the Pallavas and established the supremacy of the Cholas in the South India.
The Pallava rulers subjugated the separatist forces in south India. Almost all the dynasties of south India recognized the supremacy of the Pallavas. They occupied the territory from the Narmada and Orissa in the north to the Pennar in the south and, Bay of Bengal in the east to Berar in the west. Even Ceylon felt the political impact of the Pallavas.

Naval power gave them an easy outlet with Greater India. According to Jawaharlal Nehru, the Pallava government must have organized India’s colonization of Malaysia.

Religion

The Pallava kings were mainly worshippers of Siva and Vishnu. The Vaishnava and the Saivite literature developed during this period .The University of Kanchi imparted Aryan culture to the south. Kanchi was a great seat of Hindu culture and religion.

Sunadaramurti, the last of the Saiva saints and Vatsyayana, the author of Nayabhashya, lived during the Pallava rule.

It is also evident that the Pallava rulers were tolerant towards other religions as well. To quote Hiuen Tsang, in Kanchi itself there were more than one hundred Buddhist monasteries and eighty Jain temples.

Scholars produced vast Saiva literature during this period. During their rule the process of Aryanisation in south India was complete. The life of the people was governed by the rules laid down in the Vedas and the Dharmasastras.

Art and Architecture of the Pallavas

The greatness of the Pallavas was written on the caves, rocks and stones .The Pallava architecture was the earliest of the south Indian art. They laid down a new style in architecture. The Pallava art is divided into some styles named after the four kings, who initiated different techniques. They are popularly known as Mahendra style, Narsimhavarman style and Aparajita style.

Percy Brown observes about the Pallava architecture: ”Of all the great powers that together made the history of southern India, none had a more marked effect on the architecture of this region than the foundation of the Dravidian style”.

Literature

The Pallavas enriched south India with their literature. During the rule of the Pallavas, Kanchipuram became the center of learning. Sanskrit received enormous patronage during this period.

The works of Dandin, Kalidas, Varahamihira and Bharavi earned a great popularity. King Mahendravarman I himself was a great scholar. Prakrit and Sanskrit were nurtured by the Pallavas.

According to Hiuen Tsang Dharam Pala of Nalanda University was a Pallava.

The Greater India
It has been proved from time to time that the Indians of the past were not stay -at home people but went out of their country for exploration , trade and conquest. The question arises now what forces prompted the Indians move outside India . Trade definitely played an important role . They went to the far east for trade purpose. Some had the spirit of adventure .

The trade and any commercial activities led to the establishment of political and cultural relations . The foreign traders in India spread Indian culture , tradition in their lands . Some of them were so much fascinated by India, that permanently settled here.

It is now certain that before the first two centuries of the Christians era, Indian culture was spread to Champa ( Annam) , Java , Sumatra , Borneo Bali , Kambhuja, Siam , Malaya , Sailendra, Empire , Ceylon , Burma China ,and Tibet.

According to Elliot , the Hindu Dyansty of Champa was founded between 150 to 200 A.D. References depicting the influence of Indian culture Champa are many, Brahmanical Hinduism and Buddhism both prevailed there . The Indian colonies established in Champa always tried to gather and strongly build up a society of orthodox Hindu type.

The famous Chinese traveller Fahien had visited Java somewhere around 420 A.D while he was on way to China . He observed that there was no Buddhism but only Brahmanical religion there . The beginning of Hindu colonisation in Java carries many views . Some trace it back to Mahabharata while some link it to Kalinga form where "Twenty thousand families were sent to Java ". Itsing visited Sumatra twice and called Sumatra as a center of Buddhist learning.
Vijaya extended his supremacy over Malayan Peninsula .It is proved that the Hindu kingdom of Sumatra was formerly called as Sri-Vijaya.

Bali or Balidvipa colony in this respect is worth mentioning .As it is the only Hindu colony in the far east still retaining the old culture and civilization .The people are proud of their connection with the Hindus and call their deities-Vishnu , Siva , Indra Nandin , Krishna as Devas .

The Caste -system laid down by Manu Smriti prevailed here. Hindus also colonised in Kambuja or Comodia. The very first colony of the Hindus in Combodia was known by the Chinese name Funan. Many towns in Combodia were having Indian names e.g . Tamarapura , Vikramputra , Dhruvapura , Adhyapura etc . Hindu deities were worshipped even here , The Kambuja art also has Indian origin .

Rulers of Indian origin seem to have to have ruled the regions during the first two centuries of the Christian Era.

Some proof of Indian expansion is provided by V.D. Mahajan by the following four points:

1) Ptolemy , while writing in the middle of the second century has used a large number of geographical Sanskrit names in India - China.

2)When the Chams or the people of Annam appear in history towards the close of II century , they were already under a Hindu or Hinduised dyanasty.

3)The Chinese had an interaction with the Hindu Kingdom of Fon-Han in the 1st half of 3rd century . At that time the throne was occupied by an usurper and two kings had already ruled before him , for a period of 93 years .

4)An ambassador of a small Hindu kingdom ( Tenasserim) who visited the Chinese court in 515 A.D is reported to have said that their kingdom was founded more than 400 years ago.

The word ‘Colonial Expansion’ makes us think of political, military or economic defeat of a weaker country. India in 8th to 11th Century A.D. had her own colonies in the neighboring countries of Asia. The meaning of ‘Colonies’, being different in this context. It was a process of cultural expansion, rather than ruling or subjugating the others.

The process of India’s cultural expansion in neighbouring countries is known as Greater India in the world of History. This was either a cultural or a religious expansion. The difference between the colonialism of India, and that of modern world is that there were no political intentions behind it.

A great Indian empire comprising Sumatra, Java, Malaysia and most of the islands existed during the later part of ancient age. The entire region was known as the Suvarnadvipa or ‘Golden Island’. The dynasty ruling over it was named Sailendra. Arab writers like Ibn-Khurdadba, Abu Zaid and Masudi and Al-Biruni tell us about the extent of the empire.

The Sailendra Empire

The Sailendra Empire controlled the sea borne trade between China and Western countries through Malay Peninsula. The Chinese authors make frequent references to the Sailendra Empire. The Sailendra power reached its peak in the latter half of the eighth A.D.

Its authority extended over Java and Kambuja (Kampuchia) but they both threw off that authority in the 9th century. Despite this loss, the Sailendra Empire continued to be a powerful and extensive force throughout the 9th and 10th centuries.

The Sailendras had close relations with the Palas of Bengal and the Cholas of the south. The Cholas were at first friendly and had matrimonial relations with the Sailendras. However they were soon engaged in a hundred years war, probably for the control of trade in the Bay of Bengal. The Sailendra rulers were devout followers of the Mahayana school of Buddhism.

The Kingdoms of Champa and Kumbuja

Champa and Kumbuja were the two powerful Hindu kingdoms of Indochina. They continued to flourish even after the end of their Indian.

The mighty and extensive kingdom of Kambuja was founded by Bhavavarman. Later it split up into a number of small states.

The Chinese sources refer to two parts of this state namely ‘Kambuja of the land’ and ‘Kambuja of the water’. The former probably comprised the northern part touching the Chinese province of Tonkin. The part covered by water extended along the middle of the Mekong River.

King Sanjay of Java conquered this country and the Sailendras held sway over the region till the latter part of the 8th century. King Jayavarman II from Kambuja freed the country from foreign domination.

In one of the inscriptions reference is made to a royal guru called Sivakaivalya. He is said to have learnt Tantric rites in India. A combination of Saivism, Ancestor-worship and Tantric rituals, became the State religion of Kamboja.

The extent of the Kambuja kingdom under Jayavarman and his successors included the whole of Laos and almost touched the frontier of Yunnan. There were several families of Varman rulers in Kambujadesa.

The list of rulers include- Indravarman, a great builder, Yasovarman, a great conqueror, and the author of a commentary on Patanjali’s Mahabhashta, Rajendravarman and Jayavarman V.

The death of Jayavarman V was followed by civil war making Suryavarman I finally victorious. He is described as a great scholar and well versed in Bhashya, Kavya, Six system of philosophy and Dharmasastras.
Suryavarman died in A. D. 1048 and troubles again broke out with internal disagreements. The king of Champa invaded around the same time. Suryavarman II reintegrated the whole kingdom. In spite of internal troubles, Kambuja power had grown along with diplomatic relations with China.

This great ruler constructed the famous temple of Angkor-vat. This temple is regarded as one of the greatest wonders of the world. Suryavarman II was initiated into a Tantric cult by his guru Divakara Pandit.

The period followed by him witnessed revolutions at home abroad. The ruler of Champa seized the capital and plundered it.

Jayavarman VII, (1181 A.D.) was the last ruler of Kambuja. He was engaged in the long war with Champa and was successful. Jayavarman VII ruled over a vast empire extending from the Bay of Bengal to the sea of China including the central regions of Indochina and Malaya Peninsula.

His reign marks the end of the most glorious period in the history of Kambuja. The later history of Kambuja is not so clear. The invasions of the Annamites from the east and the Thais from the west reduced it to a small principality. The throne finally passed into the hands of the French in the 15th century.

Champa

The kingdom of Champa at its peak comprised nearly the whole of modern Vietnam (Annam.). The Pandurang Dynasty from 757 to 860 A.D. and The Bhrigu dynasty from 860 to 958 A.D. ruled over this area.

Prithvindravarman, Satyavarman and Harivarman were the main rulers of the Pandurang dynasty. They maintained diplomatic relation with China. However they were engaged in war with Kambujadesa.

The next dynasty called Bhrigu was founded by Indravarman II. He ruled for a long time from 860 to 895 A.D. Jayasimhavarman, Bhadravarman and Indravarman III were the other important rulers of this dynasty. Indravarman III was a distinguished scholar and an expert in philosophy and Panini’s grammar. He enjoyed a long reign of sixty years and maintained relations with China.

Despite various invasions, Champa continued as a political power in the succeeding centuries. The capable rulers successfully defended their country against the attacks of the Kambujas. They fought against the Mongol chief, Kublai Khan as well.

After a successful political existence of more than thirteen hundred years (A.D. 150-1471), the kingdom fell before the onslaught of the Mongols. Many beautiful temples-both Hindu and Buddhist in ruins are reminiscent of the once glorious state of Hindu rulers of this region of Southeast Asia.

Java

Java known as Yavadvipa was also the centre of Indian colonial and cultural expansion. King Sannaha in the first half of the 8th century A.D founded a powerful kingdom.

His successor Sanjay (A.D. 732) is described as the ‘conqueror of the countries of neighbouring kings’. These surrounding countries were Sumatra, Kambuja and probably Malay Peninsula.

According to a later source, his successors were temporarily displaced by the Sailendras, who conquered central Java. In the middle of the 9th century, Java emerged as powerful state.

Among the rulers of this dynasty the important kings were Vahtung, Dharmoday, Mahasambhu and Dakshottama.

It is evident that Hinduism, especially the Vedic religion, prevailed in this region. Hindu culture, however, lost its hold on Central Java about the middle of the 10th century A.D.

The center of political activity then shifted to Eastern Java, which remained the only strong centre of Hindu civilization in Java for another five hundred years.

JAVA

Sindok ascended the throne in Eastern Java in c. A.D. 929 as its first ruler. He was succeeded by his daughter Vijaya. The queen was succeeded her son Sri Mukutavenuvardhan. His daughter Mahendradatta ruled over Bail Island.

During the reign of Dharmavarman of Eastern Java, the diplomatic relations with other countries were renewed. This ruler enhanced the prestige and glory of the kingdom. His successor and son-in-law was Airlangga. After continuous wars, he re-established the authority over the whole of Java. Before his death, this great ruler and a patron of literature divided his kingdom into two parts for his two sons. The Western part had its capital at Kaderi and the Eastern part of Singhasari.

Towards the close of the thirteenth century, a new royal dynasty was founded by King Vijay with Majapahit as his capital. This kingdom expanded its boundaries. By the year 1365 A.D., it included the whole of the Malay Peninsula. A fugitive Hindu chief of Java defeated King Vijaya and founded the kingdom of Malacca. The conversion of its second king to Islam was a turning point in the history of Java.

With the fall of the Hindu kingdom of Majapahit, the whole of the island was converted to Islam. The royal family and a large part of the Hindu population shifted to Bail to retain their heritage.

Burma or Marmma

Burma or Marmma had contacts with the Hinduised tribes such as Pyus and Mons on the Eastern border of India.

The Pyu kingdom with its capital at Srikshetra was the most powerful kingdom between the 8th and 10th centuries. It touched Kambuja on the East and India on the West. It extended up to the sea in the South and adjoined the well-known Hindu kingdom in Siam (Thailand).

The Burmeses national era starting from 638 A.D. is supposed to be the starting point of the Marmma power in Pagan. The history of this country actually begins with the ruler named Aniruddha. Aniruddha extended his kingdom in all directions. There was political unification of Burma and the introduction of Hinayana form of Buddhism. He built numerous temples and monasteries.

The next important ruler was his son Kyamzitha (A.D. 1084). His mother was an Indian princess. He built the famous Anand Temple, the masterpieces of Burman architecture designed on the Indian model. He is also reported to have repaired holy temple of Bodh-Gaya.

Kyamzitha married a Chola princess and sent a diplomatic mission to China. The territory of South Arakan acknowledged his supremacy and Tenasserin was added to his kingdom.

A number of princes of this family ruled over the country till 1271 A.D. In this year, Kublai-Khan sent an envoy demanding the submission. The Burmese ruler Narasimhapati refused the demand resulting in the Mongol invasion. The whole country was engulfed in blood and flame of the tartar. Complete disintegration of Burmese dynasy followed after this struggle.

Siam (Thailand)

The beginning of Hindu colonization Siam (Thailand) could be traced to the first two centuries of the Christian era. In the northern part, the kingdom of Dvaravati flourished in the 7th C. A.D. The southern part of Siam formed a part of the Kambuja Empire. After the decline of the Kambujas in the 13th century, Siam became an independent political power.

Thais, a Mongolian tribe, took control of Siam. Thais played an active role in the history of Indochina during the next five centuries. They overthrew the Hindu kingdoms of Kambuja and Champa.

Later, two groups of this tribe settled down in Yunnan and Tinkin. The Tinkins were known as Annamits. Yunnans under the influence of Hindu culture setup the kingdom of Gandhara know to Chinese as Nan-Cho. One part of it was called Videharaja with Mithila as its capital.

According to the local traditions Avalokitesvara of India converted the local population to Buddhism. In the first half of the 8th century, a Hindu monk named Chandragupta came here to show miracles.

The Thai kingdom of Nan-cho or Gandhara became a powerful independent kingdom about the middle of the 7th C. A.D. It fought successfully against China. The kingdom of Gandhara flourished till A.D. 1253, when Kublai khan conquered it.