Researching Writing Practices

The goal of this project is for you to apply what we have learned, about how writing works as part of systems that are trying to accomplish things, and that it both shapes and is shaped by the particular places where it happens, to a writing situation from your past. As the author of your study, you are the expert, the "insider" on that context. Your reader knows nothing about it - you will need to realize how much you take for granted in order to situate your context for the reader. So your background will need to explain the location, culture and purposes of your context generally. Then you will need to explain to your readers all the "jobs" that the context carries out, and document the writing "systems" and explain how they try to carry out the work of the context. Finally, in the analysis sections of the report, you will point out ways the particular features of this context effect the ways documents and writing systems work there. The final goal, after documenting the place and its practices, is to show how those systems' functions are contingent upon the features of the scene or environment of the context: the hierarchical structure, the way the documents have been done in the past, the attitudes and approaches of people - etc.

The report has three main parts - the introductory sections, the context analysis, and the genre analysis. The intro sections are the Executive Summary, the Introduction and Background. In these you will summarize the whole report, and introduce and explain the context respectively. In the context analysis, you will document the writing systems of the context - not focusing on a particular documents, but showing how the context tries to achieve its goals using a number of documents and the processes of their use. This section has two parts - in the first you will record the range of documents used by the different people/roles in the context and the way they work. In the second part, the analysis, you will explain how/why/in what way the documents function as the do because of the particular features of the context - the culture, people, attitudes, etc. The third section of the report is the genre analysis. It is much like your context analysis, except it is focused on a single type of document from your context. The first part of the genre analysis will document the features of the particular genre - what does it look like? what sections does it have? Who uses what parts of it? etc. etc. Then like the analysis section of the context analysis, you will discuss ways this particular genre is a product of its particular environment, and how/why it works as it does because of that environment.

Sections of the RWP project report:

WORC: Writing in Organizations Consulting

A Context and Genre Analysis of:

Prof. Mackowiak's Journalism 215 at Eastern Michigan University

by Barry Hoover




Executive Summary [return to top]
    The purpose of the Research and Writing Practices is to see how various documents shape the attitudes, commitments, and goals of Prof. Mackiowak's Journalism 215 course.  Prof. Mackiowak is a journalist at the Ann Arbor News and teaches students how to use good news writing and reporting techniques throughout the class, which is held in a computer lab on the third floor of Pray Harrold at Eastern Michigan University.  I chose to focus on a particular document, the homework assignments, and analyze how they apply to students in this course.

Introduction and Background [return to top]
     Eastern Michigan University is located in Ypsilanti, Michigan and is best known for its teaching program.  One-third of all graduates obtain teaching degrees from EMU.  The english Department is large and located on the top floor of the main classroom building, Pray Harrold, and offers a variety of majors for teaching and non-teaching careers.
    Journalism 215 is only required for students majoring in English; however, since the course is offered to sophomores and above and is taken by a variety of english majors, different attitudes existed within the context.  Depending on whether or not you are an English Language and Literature major or a Journalism major, for an example, affected how relevant the course was to each.


The Goals of English 324: Tech Comm Principles
    The purpose of Journalism 215 is to teach the students how to use AP style and how to incorporate that knowledge into writing news articles.  Prof. Mackiowak also emphasized the fundamentals behind reporting events and gathering information, so students were required to attend local town meetings and interview fellow classmates.  Being skilled at writing news stories is acheived only through a process of trial and error.  No one in class was expected to receive the maximum number of points for an assignment without revising it.  That is why Prof. Mackiowak provided students with an unlimited number of rewrites.

The Culture of Extra-Disciplinary Requirement Courses
    Journalism 215 was held in a computer lab.  Attendance was required because it was a workshop course and Prof. Mackiowak gave out a number of assignments that had to be completed by the end of the hour.  As I mentioned earlier, an unlimited number of rewrites were available for all assignments, except tests and quizzes.  The professor took the highest grade from a rewrite and recorded it rather than averaging the points together.  Although this seems simple enough, some attitudes and patterns of school practice affected how well students performed.

Attitudes and Patterns of Behavior

    Since a prevailing characteristic among college students is procrastination, many people took this priveledge for granted and found themselves overwhelmed rewriting all of their news stories before they were due at the end of the semester.  Prof. Mackiowak was skilled at what he taught because he worked for the Ann Arbor News, but he was also fairly laid back, so he did not often remind students to turn in their rewrites before they become a burden.
    A particular student's commitment to the course was also affected by what English major they were working toward.  For an example, the student who sat across from me was majoring in Public Relations and the student to my left was majoring in English Language and Literature for teachers.  The former was more commited to doing well in the course, probably because PR officials are expected to maintain a relationship with the media.  The latter student clearly viewed the course as being more of a chore.
    One day, I heard a student complaining to the professor about how she works 40 hours a week and does not have time to attend a city council meeting.  So another factor affecting how well a student performed was how many hours they worked each week.  I only worked 20 hours a week so I had ample time to do all of the assignments.  Many students also commented on the difficulty of using AP style because their previous high school english courses seemed to prefer the use of passive voice. AP style does not recommend using passive voice unless it is absolutely necessary. 

Context Analysis

Documents, Users and Purposes at MY CONTEXT [return to top]
    The exchange of documents in Journalism 215 was continuous.  Six types of documents were used, including participation, homework, in class work, quizzes, tests and projects.
    Participation documents were worth 10 points each and usually dealt with concepts described in the Journalism 215 textbook.  One chapter talked about the importance of using open ended questions when interviewing subjects, so students were required to type up 10 open ended questions that would require more than a yes or no response.  Participation documents were unique because the students began the exchange of documents by writing the kinds of sentences Prof. Mackiowak specified and handing them in.
    Homework was different because the students did not begin the exchange process and each homework assignment was worth 20 points.  Prof. Mackiowak provided the students with the first document, which contained a block of information the students were required to reorganize into an AP style news article using the appropriate format. The students then gave their articles to the teacher for grading.  In class work  was identical to homework except each article was due by the end of the hour.  Rewrites were allowed, but students absent when the original assignment was given out were penalized 3 points.
    Quizzes were handed out on a weekly basis and each one was worth 10 points.  The professor handed out quizzes to test the students on their knowledge of AP style.  Each quiz contained 10 questions the students were required to rewrite, correcting all grammatical and spelling errors as they went along.  Unlike homework and participation documents, quizzes could not be rewritten for a higher score.  Tests functioned in much the same way, but each test was worth 50 points and the students were required to reorganize information into news articles at the end, similar to homework.  Tests could not be rewritten for a higher score.
    Journalism 215 required students to practice good news reporting.  Four projects which tested students on this ability were given out during the course of the semester and each was worth 50 points.  One project required students to interview a classmate and write a biographical news article about them.  Another project required students to attend a meeting and write a news article about the event, using direct and indirect quotes.  All projects could be rewritten for a higher score.
    All documents capable of being rewritten would go through a lengthy exchange process.  As illustrated earlier, the teacher would create the initial document for the student's use, such as a block of information, questions, or project requirements.  Second, the students would either reorganize blocks of information into news articles, answer questions, or begin composing a news story based on a project's specifications.  The resulting document was for the teacher's use and would be handed in for grading.  The teacher would then edit each document using a red pen and write the number of points received at the top, and, consequently, change the document again, making it for the student's use.  Lastly, the students would take the teacher's editorial notes into account and rewrite the news story or project and hand it in again for a higher grade.  Since rewrites were unlimited, this process was continuous, and each document shifted from the teacher's use to the student's use until a satisfactory grade was reached.


You should have a diagram that illustrates a process or a set of processes in your context.

Results/Discussion - How/Why Documents Work the way they Do Here [return to top]
    Participation documents were fairly easy as long as the student understood a key principle and knew how to apply it, such as what open ended questions were and what the difference between direct and indirect quotes was.  The main purpose of the participation documents was to acquire experience with writing the homework assignments.
    The homework Prof. Mackiowak handed out was especially useful because  the successful completion of everything else in the class was dependent upon the amount of effort each student put into their homework.   Since students taking Journalism 215 usually don't have any prior experience with reporting, the blocks of information to be arranged into news articles accomplishes the immediate goal of teaching students to write in AP style.  Homework was given every night because it takes time to learn how to write in this manner.
    The projects expanded upon homework assignments by asking the students to do the reporting themselves and use their own blocks of information to write news stories.  It would be impossible to do well with a project in Journalism 215 if a student never put any effort into the homework.
    Tests and quizzes are dependent on the homework as well because typical homework assignments were found at the end of each test and each quiz tested the students knowledge of the grammar and spelling rules associated with AP style.  Students also had to complete the tests and quizzes in class, so it was important for students to practice writing news stories if they wanted to finish them within a reasonable amount of time. This was also true for the in class assignments handed out.
    Rewrites were not only useful but they were relevant to the news writing and reporting experience because no journalist can be expected to write pefect news stories after their first attempt. This is true for everyone, but especially for journalists because whenever new information arises or information is later deemed to be false, a rewrite is required.

Student and Location Determinants  

So Participation documents, homework, projects, and tests and quizzes are all dependent upon each other, but their completion was also dependent upon the culture of Journalism 215.  More specifically, success in the course was dependent upon the students and the location of the class.
    The exchange of documents in Journalism 215 works because all of the students are english majors or minors.  For example, someone majoring in engineering would probably find the course to be tedious and overwhelming because students were writing papers constantly.  I would also assume that a particular student's success in this course could be measured in part by what type of english major or minor he/she possessed.  Technical, Professional and Public Relations students probably do somewhat better than English Language and Literature or Imaginative Writing students.  The person sitting to my left in class was studying to teach English Language and Literature, and he did not seem to be doing as well as the Public Relations major who sat across from me.  This was probably the result of an attitude he brought with him to the course or one which he developed while taking it.
     The tendency for students to procrastinate does not work well in this course because papers that need to be rewritten pile up quickly and students need to start the projects early to retrieve enough information to arrange into a news article.  Procrastination seems to be the result of some preconceived notions students bring with them to this course.  Students not majoring in a specific area of writing seemed to be more likely to procrastinate than those who were.  I would assume that this is largely due to their interests.
    As mentioned earlier, Journalism 215 was held in a computer lab.  This was important because news stories are typed, not handwritten.  Holding this course in a computer lab is not really necessary because Prof. Mackiowak can still ask the students to type up the homework at home, but the fact that it is held in a computer lab creates an atmosphere more relevant to news writing and reporting.  It helps the students understand that this course means business, and when you come to class, you are actually coming into a news room.  I am sure this affects how well students do in the class.


Genre Analysis

The Genre: Defined, Described, and Usage Explained [return to top]
    Homework was the most widely used type of document in Journalism 215.  Prof. Mackiowak gave students homework on a daily basis by asking them to organize blocks of information into news stories.  Obituaries, city announcements and brights were a few of the most tangible types of stories written, but students were also taught how to write news stories that dealt with traffic accidents, missing people and mayoral debates.  Some stories required a specific format as well, such as the inverted pyramid, and narration format.

The Exchange Process

    Each homework assignment was evaluated on a 20 point scale.  After the information Prof. Mackiowak gave out was organized into a news story, students would hand them in the following class period for grading.  The professor would then make editorial notes on each assignment and list the number of points received at the top.  Most students would revise their graded homework if they received anything below 17 points because the students' final grade in the course was determined on a 1000 point scale and homework made up over 50 percent of their grades.  
    As mentioned earlier, students received an unlimited number of revisions.  When students chose to revise a homework assignment, the revised copy was to be stapled to the assignment previously graded.  Students rarely received 20 points on the second revision, however, Prof. Mackiowak's editorial notes became more useful with each rewrite because the students would have more to work with.

A Varied Approach to Writing News Articles Using Different Formats
    
    The main goal of the homework assignments in Journalism 215 was to help students become familiar with writing and organizing information in accordance with AP style, however, not all news stories are alike.  The way information was to be organized varied according to the type of article that was assigned.  Writing different types of news stories also built on different journalistic skills, such as using the inverted pyramid or using direct and indirect quotes.  Some of the basic types of news stories covered were obituaries, community announcements, brights and news stories on mayoral debates.
    Obituaries are written in regard to someone who recently passed away.  The purpose of these news stories is to list, in order: the name, age and address of the deceased, how and when they died, where and when they were born, their relatives, and the funeral arrangements.  Some obituaries contain a biography, but they are usually reserved for public figures, celebrities or people who made a difference in their community.
    Writing stories about announcements in the community were good practice for using the inverted pyramid story structure.  According to this format, the most important information is listed in a descending order of importance.  The story is usually concluded with background on the organization.  For example, the fact that the city budget meeting was rescheduled for next Thursday would probably be listed in the first paragraph.
    Brights are news stories with a twist at the end.  A clear focus is listed in the first paragraph but the revealing information is reserved for the end.  The type of format used with this type of news story is known as a narration because it tells a story.  The first paragraph, or lede, is descriptive and not bound by having to list important information first.  For example, assume that John Doe's car engine died and, upon opening the hood of his car, he found a squirrels nest lodged between the coolant tank and the alternator.  The fact that the wires underneath his hood are made of a soy derivative that attracts squirrels would not be mentioned until the last sentence of the story, after a complete narration developed.
    Writing news stories that recorded a mayoral debate were good practice with using direct and indirect quotes, and paraphrases.  Prof. Mackiowak would give students a paragraph of information that listed information that could be made into a direct or indirect quote or paraphrase and ask the students to organize them correctly.
    
Homework as a Double Edged Sword

    Basically, homework functioned as a double edged sword.  If students did not put much effort into it, they usually did poorly on the tests, quizzes and projects since every other document in Journalism 215 expanded upon the homework assignments.  Tests and Quizzes measured the students knowledge of AP style and projects required the students to use their own reporting skills to gather information to be organized into a news story.

Results/Discussion - How/Why this Genre Works the way it Does Here [return to top]
    Homework assignments worked in this context because Journalists are always writing news stories and the goal of this course was to give the students a glimpse into the behavior of one.  If there does not seem anything important to announce, most news agencies will make something important to announce.  This is because journalists have a budget to uphold just like everyone else.
    Journalism 215 was held on Mondays and Wednesdays so students had time to do the homework.  During each class period, Prof. Mackiowak would let the homework assignments and in class work speak for themselves rather than lecture about a principle.  The best way to learn in Journalism 215 was through experience.  There were no lists to be memorized for tests because learning to write is like learning how to play an instrument.  Tests and quizzes evaluated a student based on their culmination of experience, just as a piano teacher evaluates how often their student practiced during the week by listening to them.    So the purpose of handing out homework assignments daily not only taught the students how to use AP style, but it also taught them that newsworthy information is found everyday.  Through the process of constantly rewriting stories and writing new ones, it seemed the goal of Journalism 215 was met. I would suspect that some of the most insightful students would see that Prof. Mackiowak was trying to turn the "how" into "what."  Now, rather than spending all their time wondering how to write a news story, some students are wondering what they can write about.  It would make sense that news agencies want this same quality in all their future journalists.