c-BASQUE-4.htm

The purpose of this short essay is to establish as a hypothesis that IE and Basque are both descended from a common ancestor, which, I term the Proto-Language from the form into which it had developed by about 55-60K BPE.

This date is based on the estimates of Cavalli-Sforza for the separation of the peoples of Asia and Europe (The Great Human Diasporas, p. 123) from the "main" branch of the people speaking the Proto-Language.

During this phase of development, the Proto-Language was passing out of a class-type morphology into an ergative-type morphology (G. A. Klimov).

Its word order is consistently SOV (Trask 1997:109), what we would expect from any language that preserves early syntax. However, although "modifiers overwhelmingly precede their heads", a further correlate of SOV typology, in Basque, "lexical adjectives follow the nouns they modify (Trask 1997:122)".

This discrepancy can be resolved when we realize that a number of Basque adjectives like ilun, "dark", also function as nouns: "darkness", which has led "a number of vasconists to suspect that, at some early stage of the language, there was no distinction between adjectives and nouns (Trask 1997:210)", which Trask admits as a possibility if "at a very remote period".

What is enormously exciting about Basque is that (like Japanese) it separated from the main branch of the Proto-Language before the stage of development (Pontic) in which the oldest semantic contrasts of CE / CA / CO were replaced by C^yV, C^(-)V, and C^wV, the superscripts indicating semi-consonantal glides or no glide.

Therefore, in open syllables ( in the absence of a following /j/ or /w/), Basque preserves the original vowel quality of the Proto-Language intact.

In the Table of Correspondence found after the listing of lexical cognates below, the column entitled PROTO-LANGUAGE shows the earliest syllables before vocalic contrasts were replaced by a contrast of glides and no glide (during the Pontic stage: 60-40K BPE).

Similar tables of equivalence can and have been constructed for the Proto-Language, IE and Afrasian (Egyptian and Arabic), Altaic, Beng (Southern Mandé), Hurrian, Japanese, Nama ([Khoi]san), (Sino-)Tibetan, Sumerian, and Uralic.

A reassessment of Basque is long overdue. As we will see in the forthcoming PL-IE-Sumerian essay, Basque shows such close relationships with this language, that the basal component of the Sumerian culture (sheep-herders) must be considered ethnically Basque.

However, a reassessment of Basque will not be easy to accomplish. Many Vasconists, of which Professor R. L. Trask is very prominent, vociferously deny that Basque may be related to any language or language family on earth. In a recent serious of postings to the Internet Evolution of Language discussion list, I offered my thoughts in this connection in response to a generally dismissive critique by Professor Trask of the ideas presented in this essay, an exchange some readers might be interested in following.

To consider Basque an isolate when genetically, Basques are practically indistinguishable from other Europeans, and to deny the connection with Sumer is to deprive the Basques of their proud heritage.

Recently (April 2001), an interesting study of Basque phonology by Miguel Carrasquer Vidal, entitled Pre-Basque Phonology, has become available on the web; and is worthy of serious consideration.

An excellent online resource for Basque in particular and Sino-Caucasian in general is at the TOWER OF BABEL, founded by Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin, and now part of the Evolution of Human Languages project at the Santa Fe Institute.

An important new resource for Nostratic studies is the website Nostratica, instituted by Kirill Babaev, the founder of the Cybalist language discussion group at Yahoo! Groups.



Similar tables of equivalence can and have been constructed for the Proto-Language, IE and Afrasian, Altaic, Basque (present essay), Beng (Southern Mandé), Blackfoot (Algonquian), Dravidian (incomplete), Etruscan, Hurrian-Urartian, Japanese, Mon/Hmong, Nama, Pama-Nyungan (incomplete), (Sino-)Tibetan, Sumerian, and Uralic.

(2)?A-RO(-¿E) ("straight-raise{-like}=put in order"), ARO(I) to C: ar, "male"; AROI to C. -ari, suffix indicating agent; (IE aryo-, "lord, commander", derived from *3. ar-, "put together"); (cf. Egyptian jrj, "make, do"; jr(j)j, "keeper"); (cf. Sumerian al, "protect, preserve" {J. 564})

(3)?A-"?O-FA ("forehead-mouth"-collective"), AO₂ to C: a(h/b/g)o, "mouth"; (IE *o:u- in o:us-, mouth)

(4)K[?]XA-"?A-FA ("hang"+stative="hanging-s=dark"), K₂A(:)U to C: gau / B: gaba, "night"; (IE gh[^]e:u-, yawn, gape, emptiness {cf. Greek kháos, "empty space, darkness[?]"}; (cf. Egyptian Hwy.t, "rain" {"darkening?"}; (cf. Sumerian in ku-10, "*dark" {J. 770}; kuku, "dark, darkness" {2x J. 770}); (cf. also A: possibly ja?â (j-?-w), 'to cover, conceal')

(5)ME-"¿E-NA-¿E("tongue-like-thing=speech-like=speech-organ"), P₃INI to C. mi(h)i / G: min in min-gain, "tongue" {for gain, "top", see (17) below}; (IE *me, *tongue; only in combination; mei-no-, "intention, view"; *moi-no-, "deception", listed under *2. mei-, "change, exchange"); (Egyptian*(j)m, "*tongue" (Gardiner Aa14, "not specified", rather "tongue"; perhaps in m(j)n.t, "the like ["what was spoken{?}"]"'); (cf. also A: possibly mâna (m-y-n), 'to tell a lie');(cf. Sumerian me / mi-3, tongue; men-2, "speech" {J. 889}; im-4, "tongue" {J. 50}); (cf. Nama (Khoisan) miⁿ, "say"); (cf. Southeastern Tasmanian *ména, "tongue" {FitzGerald / O'Grady 1994})

(6) REVISED (see below) ME-¿E+N[H]A-"¿E-K[?]E("tongue-like"+"moisture-like=damp-bow"), P₃I+LIKA to C. milika-tu, "lick"; (IE in *s+leig-, "slimey, glide, smouth out", listed under *3. lei-, "slimey, ground slippery through dampness, glide out of, brush or slip over, also, go over smoothingly {cf. also *4. le/e:i-, "pour, flow, drip"})

(6 *revised*) "ME-N[H]A-¿E ("tongue-move+like"), P₃ELI+katu to C. mili-katu, "lick"; (IE **mel- in *mels-, "to taste of something, sample, *lick (cf. Czech mlsati, ‘lick')"; and 8. mel-, "come out".

As a result of the objections raised by Professor R. L. Trask to this comparison in August 1998, (namely, its limited distribution among the Basque dialects and late attestation principally, among others), for which I thank him, I have reviewed the analysis proposed above; and am revising it as indicated above:

1) I now believe the word should be analyzed as mili + katu, a rather common compound suffix forming infinitives, which is further resolvable into adverbial ka + tu.

A) This is based on the existence of true expressive deformations of the word: milizkatu and *miliskatu (*not in Aulestia but supplied by Trask), attested in virtually the same meaning (‘eat pickily, taste'); and

B) on the prevalence of the suffix -katu in other expressions for ‘lick': lami-katu, miaz-katu, mihi-katu, murdu-katu.

2) The existence of IE mels-, ‘to taste of something, sample, *lick (cf. Czech mlsati, ‘lick'), however, shows that an earlier root in the form of **mel- + a root extension -s may be credibly reconstructed for IE even though it is not attested but forms like Tocharian B meli, ‘nose', are suggestive.

I believe the medial i of *mili is due to assimilation, and that the original underlying form is from ME-N[H]A-¿E, "tongue-move-like=coming out of=sticking-out", with -¿E corresponding to Basque adjectival -i.

When analyzed in this way, Basque **meli can be related to IE 8. mel-, ‘come out'. This root appears to be present in Arabic as well: mala¿a, ‘to skin (a sheep), tear off (clothes)' as '**cause to come out', corresponding to IE mel6- (**meleH₂-; ME-N[H]A-¿A, "tongue-move-(perfective)=come-out-of").

(7)M[H]E-HHA-"NA-¿E ("eel-water-thing-like"), P₃ENE₂ to C. me(h)e, "thin"; (IE me:ni-, listed under 4. men-, "small, make small, *thin {in derivatives}"); (cf. Sumerian min-3, '*thin' {J. 919}; cf. also E perhaps in m(j)n, "be ill, suffer ["become thin, waste away{?}"]"; m(j)n.w, "thread"); (cf. also A: possibly maHana, "to wear out (of a garment) ["become thin" {?}]")

(8)SA-"¿E-NA ("sinew-like-thing"), SAIN to C. zain, "sinew, vein, tendon, artery"; (IE sei-no-, "band", listed under se:(i)-, "bind"); (cf. Egyptian *z, "*sinew" {Eg. O34 depicts "cord with knot"}; zjn.w, "ropes"); (cf. Sumerian J. 944 + Comb. 1337 = J. 362 +J. 832, glossed Akkadian Sindu, "rope, tie"; note sa, "sinew, cord" {J. 169})

(9)T[?]SE-"¿E-T[?]SE-¿E("finger-like-finger-like=pointe d=nipple"), T₂IT₂EI to C. diti, "nipple"; (IE *dhei-dhei- {in Gothic daddjan, "suckle"}, "teat", listed under dhe/e:(i)-, "suck, suckle"; (cf. Arabic tadyun {for *dâdyun}, "dug"); (cf. Egyptian Coptic ci, "breast")

(10)HHA-SA-"HHE ("water+strong-go away=throw"), A-ZA^YE to C. (h)a-zi, "semen"; (IE 2. se:(i)-, "release, throw, let fall, sow, first component of *semen")

(11)?E-"KX[H]E-NA-¿E ("then-go fast-thing=business" to "being busy"-(like)), E-K₂ENI to C. e-kin (*e-gen-i⁽¹⁾), "persist, continue, keep on, attempt"; (IE ke:n-, listed under 4. ken-, "busy one's self, strive ardently, spout"); (cf. Arabic ghanna, "be lively"); (cf. Egyptian Hn, "occupy one's hands with, go speedily); (cf. Sumerian kin, "work, send"); for formants, see under Morphology.

(12)?E-SA-"TS[H]E-F[H]A-R[H]E-¿A ("then-strong-spread out-ing-come"+perfective), E-ZT₂O₂R-I to C. e-torr-i, "come"; (IE s+teur-, *go, move", listed under 1. twer-, "turn, stir, vibrate, also of spirited movement in general"); for formants, see under Morphology.

(13)?E-SA-TS[?]O-F[H]E -"N[H]A-¿A ("then-strong-arm=column-wind=smoke-column-move=swirl" + perfective"), E-ZT₂ULA-I to E-T₂ZULA-I to C. i-tzul-i, "turn"; (IE 4. dh(e)wel-, *swirl up, disturb (water)", listed under 4. dheu-, "smoke, quiver; be in strongly agitated movement, put into strongly whirling motion"; *s+dhewel- = (*s)twel-, "whirl, curl", listed {incorrectly} under te:u-, "swell"); for formants, see under Morphology.

(14)HHA-"F[H]A-R[H]E ("water-s-come=body of water"), AUR to C. ur, "water"; (IE awer-, "water", listed under 9. aw(e)-, "sprinkle, dampen, flow"); (cf. also Sumerian ur-3, "water a field" {496})

(15)SA-PF[H]O-"F[H]A-S[H]A ("strong-puff-ing"-state="exhalation"), ZP₂US to C. putz / futz, "puff of air"; (IE p(h)us-, listed under 1. pu/u:-, "blow up, blown up, swollen, billow"); (cf. also E probably in b(w)zj, "flow forth"); (cf. also Sumerian pUš (for *pUs), "*blow" {324}); (cf. also A: nafas-un (from n + *f-w-s), "puff")

(16)SA-PF[H]A-RE-"T[?]O("strong-spongy-some=fat-lump") , ZP₂ARTO to fardo, "spongy, mushy"; (IE (s)p(h)er-d(h)-, "jerk, jump, *springy")

(17)"XE-?A-¿E-NA ("body-hair-stative="hairy-like-thing"), K₃AIN to C. gain, "top, surface, summit, peak"; (IE g[w]e:i-no-, "skin, pelt", listed underg[w]e:-i;s+g[w]ein- in (s)ken-(d-), "split off, split off skin, flake, rind"); (cf. Egyptian X(i)n.t (better*Sin.t), "hide, skin"); (cf. Sumerian še/in, "*skin"; J. 9 reads še/in, and means "(copper)water-kettle", which was derived from an earlier ghirba)

(18)"HHA-R[H]A-QE-¿E("water-color=white+juice=milk-lik e"), AR⁽²⁾K₄I to C. argi, "light"; (IE areg[^]i- , listed under ar(e)g[^]-, "glistening, whitish"; strangely, Trask rejects a connection because ". . .no Indo-European language appears to show the form *argi (Trask 1997:369)"; which is patently incorrect, e.g. the Thracian river-name Árzos {*Argyos}; Greek argi-ódo:n, "with dazzlingly white teeth")

(19)?A-RO{-"¿E} ("top-raise=put on top-like=attached"), ARI to ari izan, "be doing, be occupied with"; (IE (a)re/e:i/i:-, listed under 1. ar-, "fit together, be fit, *joint; keep together, pile up"); (cf. Egyptian iri, "make, create"); (cf. Arabic ?illun, "compact"); (cf. Sumerian al, "keep")

(20)"F[H]E-NA ("hare-one"), UN to C. un-txi (-txi is undoubtedly a diminutive, variant of -txa; or an unlenited form of xehe, "small"{cf. txiki, "small"} "rabbit"= "little hare"), "rabbit"; (IE *wen-, "*hare", in Old Indian vana:khu, "hare" ("hare-excavation=hare burrow"); (cf. Egyptian wn, *hare; Gardiner E34, "desert hare")

(21)HA-F[H]A-RA-S[H]A-¿E ("air-s-high=very high"-state-"like=supreme, highest") (*H)O₂RZI to C. Ortzi, "supreme god"; (IE wers-, "raised place"; worso-s, "high"; wersi- in Greek rhon, "mountain height"; listed under 2.wer-; cf. Greek ouranós, "sky"); (cf. Egyptian (i)w3z, "have dominion")

(22)"HHA-F[H]O-SA-(¿E)-TS[H]O-¿E("water=bright-spider- cord{-like}=spider-web=lacy dawn+revolve-like=direction=East"), O₂ZT₂I to *oz-ti-lari (cf. ortzilare) to ostiral(a), "Friday {dies Veneris}" (*oz-, "dawn" + -ti, "place of , tendency to" {"*direction"} + -lari, agent); (IE in (a)wes-tero-, "westerly"; (a)wes-ter-, "dawn"-agent {cf. Breton gwere laouen, "morning star" [Mercury/Venus]; OHG O:st(a)ra, "spring [really, dawn] goddess"}, listed under awes-, "illuminate, especially of daybreak"; "west"is simply the "spider-web" without the prefix HHA, "bright"); (cf. Egyptian (I)Wziri ("dawn-maker {iri}), Osiris)

(23)HA-"F[H]A-S[H]A-¿E ("air-s"-state="-like=empty"), HUZI to L, LN, Z: huts, "empty"; (IE wa:s- in wa:s-to-, "empty, barren", listed under 1. eu-, "lack, empty"); (cf. Egyptian w3zi (for *iwzi), "be ruined, decayed")

(23)HHO-"F[H]A-SE ("heat-s-emit=ash"), OUZI to I, LN, Z, U: hauts (for *auts), "ash"; (IE eus-, "burn, *coal")

(24) P[H]A ("over") PA to C. ba⁽³⁾, "already" (see Basque Morphology: (A26a)); (IE in pi, listed under epi, "near to, on, on it, onto; temporally, thereto, there upon; spatially, behind, after"); (cf. Sumerian ba-, verbal prefix, translated with Akkadian t-perfect); (cf. Egyptian in p3, auxiliary with past meaning)

(25)S[H]A-F[H]A-RO-"T[H]O-¿E("pig-s=salty-very=pork+as semblage-like=herd"), ZWARTE to WARTE to URTE to urde, "male pig"; (IE su:-ro-, "sour, salty, bitter")

(26)HHA-R[H]A-"T[H]O-¿E("water-color=white+assemblage-like=herd"), ARTE to C: ardi, "sheep"; (IE *er-ti-o, "ram", in Middle Irish reithe, listed under 2. er-, "sheep, he-goat, cow"); (cf. Arabic H_.arha, "sparkling of fire"); (cf. Sumerian ara-2 {for *ari; J. Comb. 2549 = J. 684 + J. 410, which reads ri-6}, "*shiny"; ar, "shine" {J. 800})

(27)HHA-R[H]A-"KX[H]O-¿A("water-color=white=sheep+c ut"-perfective), ARAK₂I to B, G: aragi (*ara, "*sheep" + *-ki, "piece, meat of . . . "), "meat, flesh"; (IE 2. er- {see (26) above, "sheep"+ (s)ke:i-, "cut, part, separate"); (cf. Egyptian zx, "chop off"; zxw.ii, "slaughter-house"); (cf. Sumerian ki-5, *cut [J. 785 means "build", and pictures an adze, and reads ki-5])

(28) ?E-¿E-SE-S[H]A("thorn-like=arrow-emit=shoot"-state"), EI(*S)ZA to B, G: eiza, "hunting"; (IE 1. eis-, "move fast, forcefully, unsteadily; drive, impel, enliven; also from the dispatch of missiles, arrows"; eis- can be further analyzed as ?E-¿E ("thorn-like"), "round stick, arrow" (cf. IE 4. ei-, "pole") + SE, "emit" (in IE 2. se:(i)-, "throw"; cf. Sumerian še-15, "*shoot* [J. 784 reads še-15, and shows a 'bow']; cf. Arabic syun, "curved part of bow"); (cf. Egyptian izpt, "quiver for arrows"; iz H3q, "easy prey" ("hunt and plunder")

(29)P[H]E-"N[H]A-¿E-S[H]A ("mouse-the (anim.)-like=gray"-state), PELE₂Zto C: bel(e)tz, "black"; (IE peli-, "gray", listed under 6. pel-, "gray, pallid"; cf. Greek pe:lós {*palsós}, "clay, mud, manure, bog")

(30)HA-"NA-SE(-FA)("air-thing=breath-emit=breathe-{ing}" ), HA("^NA)S to L, LN, Z, U: hats, "breath"; (IE in ansu-, "spirit, demon, breath {cf. Old Indian su-, "breath of life"})

(31)MO-FA-"T[?]O-N[H]A ("blood-s-(c)lump-liquid"), P₃O₂TOL to C: (*b₃)odol, "blood"; (IE meud-lo- in Polish/Old Bulgarian muL, "mud", listed under 1. meu-, "damp, mouldy, sprinkle, unclean liquid (also urine), dirty")

(32)T[?]E-FA-"K[?]XA-SO ("finger-s=teats-hang-skin"), (T)UK₂AZ to C: (*d)ugatz, "(female) breast"; (IE in English dugs = IE dheughso-; also found in dheugh-, "milk")

(33)P[H]FO-N[H]A-"F[H]A-RE ("blow up-start-ing{-any", indefinite}), P₂OLUR to C. bular, "breast" (with metathesis); (IE pleur- in Greek pleura, "side, rib"; an -r/n form of pleu-, "*lung", listed under pl(e)u-mon-, "lung")

(34)M[H]A-"NA-T[H]SE-N[H]A ("bite-thing=tooth-spread open=open the mouth for biting off-agentive), P₃ANAT₂ELA to MANAT₂ELA to L, LN: matela, "jaw" = "*biter off"; (IE 2. menth-, "chew, teeth, mouth"); (cf. Egyptian mnD.t, "cheek")

(35)SA-T[H]SA-"R[H]E-T[H]SO-(¿E) ("strong-rear up-(be)come=stretch out+revolve-like = direction"), ZT₂ARETOI to C: tar-te (for *tar-ti, "place of . . ."), "interval"; (IE stre:- in str-to-, "what is broadened out", listed under 5. ster-, "stretch out, broaden out")

(36)?E-?A-S[H]A-NA-¿A ("then-here-be satisfied=stay-in"-perfective), IZANI to C: izan(i)⁽⁴⁾, "to be"; (IE es-, "to be")

(37)?E-HHA-¿E-KX[H]O-NA-¿A("then-water-like=sea-shell to possession-at-perfective), JAIKONI to C: jakin (*e-aiko-n-i), "know [how] (be knowledgeable at)"; (IE e:ik-, "have as one's own, be able to do")

(38)?E-M[H]O-¿E-NA-NA-¿A("then-wander-like-thing=trav el" to "go-at"-perfective), E(*P3)OINANI to C: joan (from *e-(*b₃)oina-n-i), "go"; (IE mein-, "wander, go", listed under 3. mei-)

(39)?E-?E-T[?]A-NA-¿A ("then-tooth-give-at-perfective), J(*ET)ANI to C: jan (from *j-(*ed)a-n-i), "eat"; (IE ed-, "eat")

(40)?E-HHO-HA-N[H]A-¿A ("then-go down"-stative-"start"=bow"-perfective), JO(:)LI to JOIL to JIL to il- in C: il-argi, "(crescent-)moon" [for argi, "white", see above]; (IE ele/e:i-, "bend, *bow", listed under 8. el-); (cf. Egyptian h(i)n, "praise" [determinative shows a 'man on his knees']); and the related il-gora, "bow-high"="crescent moon"; see below)

(41)QO-"RO-?A ("skull-raise=high"-stative), K₄ORA to C: gora, "high"; (IE gre:(i)-, listed under 4. ger-, "grow, wake, lift up [cf. Albanian Geg. ngre:i-, "hoist, set up, wake"])

(42)?E-T[?]O-"FA-NA-¿A ("then-lump-ing-at"-perfective), ET"UNI to C: *edun (from *e-du-n-i), "have (have been presented with . . . at"; (IE 2. deu-, "somewhat as (religiously) honor, guarantee, honorable, powerful, dedicate" [cf. Old Indian dúvas, "gift"])

(43)?E-"M[H]A-NA-¿A("then-active-one=hand(over)"-perfective), EP₃ANI to C: eman(frome-b₃an-i), "give"; (IE man-, "hand, *give [in compounds]", listed under m6-r, "hand"); (cf. Egyptian mni, "endow"); (cf. Arabic mannun, "gift"; manaHa, "grant, give"; manna, "bestow")

(44)?E-"Q[H]O-NA-¿A ("then-squeeze one's self-thing=squat"-perfective) EK₄ONI to C: egon (from e-g₄on-i), "stay, wait"; (IE 1. ken-, "press together, pinch, crease together, what is pressed together, balled up"); (cf. Egyptian gnn, "be weak" [determinative shows a 'man squatting'])

(45)?E-SE-NA-¿A ("then-emit-thing=scent to opinion to say"-perfective"), ESANI to B, G, U: esan (from e-san-i), "say"; (IE *sen-, "*say", under sent-, "take a direction, go, and in a mental sense: discover, become aware of; opinion")

(46)?E-"T[?]E-FA-KX[H]A-NA-¿A ("then-sole-s=move forward+bee=sting=prod-at"-perfective), E"(T)UKANI to L, LN, Z, U: ukan (*e-(*d)uka-n-i), "have"; (IE deuk-, "pull, lead")

(47)P[?]FA-?A-¿E ("prominent"-stative-"-like=obvious"), P₂AI to C. bai, "indeed"; (IE bhe/e:i-, particle of assurance and emphasis, listed under 2. bhe/e:); (cf. Egyptian bibi, "acclaim")

(48)?E-P[?]FO-FA ("then-leg=club-(b)ing"), E(*P₂)O₂ to C. jo, "hit"; (IE 1. bha/a:u-, "beat, push")

(49)P[?]FO-¿E-NA ("leg-like-thing"), (*P₂)OIN to C. oin, "leg"; (Germanic baina in IE *bhein-, "bone, leg")

(50)SA-"K[H]E-¿E-?A-S[H]A("strong-shadow-like-stative"-state), (E)ZKEIAZ to ekaitz, "storm"; (IE 1. sk[^]a:i-, "shimmer subduedly, shadow"); (cf. IE k[^]ei-, "dark"; k[^]er-, "dark, dirty, gray"; k[^]ye:-mo-, "dark gray"); (cf. Egyptian k(j)m, "black" [really "very gray"]; k(j)k(j), "be dark"); (cf. Sumerian gi-6, "night, black, shadow"; gig-2, "night, black, shadow")

(51)K[H]E-RO ("gray-very=black"), KERO to *ger-, "bad"(see Trask 1997:292); (IE k[^]er-, "dark, dirty, gray"{also see above})

(52)?E-"RA-MA(-¿E)(-NA)("then-back-place-like=carrying-thing=burden"), E"RAP₃^(Y)AN to C. eraman, "carry, transport, bear, endure"; (IE remey-, listed under rem-, "rest, prop one's self up, prop up"); (cf. Egyptian 3mm, "seize, grasp"); (cf. Sumerian ram(a), "send"); (cf. Arabic ramâ, "convey")

(53) S[H]O-"F[H]A ("clan-member(s)"-circumlocative), ZU to C. zu, "you (singular)" but formerly plural; -zu-, infix for "you"as indirect object; (IE -s, second person singular; *su-, "you [plural]" in Old Irish si:, "you [plural]", listed under 1. yu-); (cf. Arabic sawâ?-un (s-w-y),"other, equal"); (cf. Egyptian sw, 'he, him'; sj, 'he, her'; sn, 'they, them'); (cf. Sumerian zu (for su-2), "your" [singular]⁽⁵⁾)

(54)K[?]E-"¿E, ("penis-like="male"), K^HI to G^YI to C. hi, "you (familiar)"; this development is strongly suggested by the masculine allocutive form in -k (Trask 1997: 234-6); (IE in eg[^]o, "I", ?A-K[?]E, "this male"; (cf. Egyptian -k, 2^nd person singular); (cf. Arabic -k(a), 2^ndperson singular); Sumerian gi-3, "king (the 'man')" {831})

(55)SA-¿E-"RE ("tendon-like=cord-apply"), ZYA"RE to C. sare, "web, net, network"; (IE s(y)er-, listed under 4. ser-, "line up against one another, fasten together"); (cf. Egyptian z(i)3, "cattle-hobble"); (cf. Arabic ?asara, "tie, bind"); (cf. Sumerian sar (for **šir-3) "chain" (Comb. 1238 = 2x J. 281, which reads sar, depicts a 'knot in rope')

(56)"P[?]A-T[?]SO, (piece-hold"), PAT to C. bat, "one"; (IE wadh-, "pledged item"; 1. wedh-, "push, hit, castrate"; 2. wedh-, "lead, lead home, marry (of man)"; cf. also weidh-, "separate"); (cf. Egyptian p'.t, "cake or loaf"); (cf. Sumerian bat-2, "twisted off portion of bread" {820}); (cf. also A possibly baDDa, 'give scantily, pinch');

(57)Q[H]A-"R[H]A-¿E, ("hump-high=height-like=high"), K₄ARAI to C. garai, "high"; (IE k[^]erei-, "high", listed under 1. k[^]er-); (cf. Egyptian q3i, "high"); (cf. Sumerian nar-3, "high" {603})

(58)"XA-R[H]A-S[H]A, ("(fire-)trench-fly=heat"-state="burn"), K₃ARAS to C. garratz, "sour, acidic"; (IE g[w]horos-, listed under g[w]her-, "hot, warm"); (cf. Egyptian S3m, "be hot, burn"; cf. IE g[w]hor-mo-; possibly in S3z.w, "desert NE of Egypt")

(59)"HA-F[H]O-S[H]A, ("air-wind"-state="cold"), HO₂Z to C. hotz, "cold"; (IE awe:s-, "*cold" (cf. Icelandic va:s, "cold air"), listed under 10. aw(e)-, "sigh, blow, breathe"); (cf. Arabic hawâ?un, "wind")

(60)HHA-"¿E-S[H]E, ("water-like-cold=ice"), IS to C. *is, *ice, in izotz, "ice" (+hotz, "cold", see entry under (59) above); (IE ei-s-, "ice, frost"); (cf. Sumerian eš-13, "cold, winter")

(61)N[H]A-F[H]A-R[H]A, ("vibrat-ing=shimmering-color"), LUR to C. lur-, "land, ground"; (IE le:ur, "collection of rocks, earth, soil, dirt")

(62)HHA-"F[H]A-¿E-NA(-"T[?]O, ) ("water-s-like-thing"["lump"]), UIN(T)O to C. u(h)in, "wave"; (IE awein- in OHG undea, "wave", listed under 9. aw(e)-, "dampen, moisten, flow"); (cf. Egyptian inwt (for *iw(i)n.t), "wave")

(63)"HHA-F[H]A-SO+¿A-¿E-NA, ("water-s-pull+eye-like-thing"), O₂ZYIN to (h)osin, "well, pool"; (IE aus-, "draw water" + e:n, "eye", see (52) above); (cf. Sumerian *a-ušu, "*shaduf" [J. Comb. 3581 = a, "water" + J. 10, bal, "pour out"; a very similar sign, J. 11, reads ušu; J. 424 means "pour out", and reads uš; I suggest J. 10 not J. 11 should read uš)

(64)"KX[H]A-F[H]A-¿E, ("punctur[e]-ing-like"="mountain-peak-like"), KO₂I to C. goi, "high, tall, top"⁽⁶⁾; -k(i), adverb: "up"with verbs⁽⁷⁾; (IE keu-, "*high" [see Endnote 6.])

(65) SE-"FA ("excete-imperfective"="radiate"), SU to C. su, "fire, heat"; (IE in *saw-, *sun, listed under sáwel/n, "sun"; 4. seu-, "boil, *bake (cf. Old Persian ha:vayan, "they bake"); (cf. Sumerian su-3, "light"); (cf. Arabic sû?â, "hell-fire")

(66)?E-S[H]A-NA, ("there-immobile=be-at"), EZAN to C. ezan, "to be (at) (concomittantly)"; corresponds to ?E-?E-S[H]A-NA-¿A("then-there-immobile=be-at"-perfective), IZANI to IZAIN to C. izan, "to be (at) (non-concomittantly); (IE es-, "to be")

(67)?E-"NO-?E-S[H]A , ("there-put away=not (here)+there-immobile=be"), E^NE₂Z to E₍₂₎Z to C. ez, "not"; (IE e-, "there"+ ne, "not"+es-, "to be")

(68)FE-SE-FA, ("strong+emit(t)-ing=fragrant=sweet=ripe=complete"), UESO₂ to O₂SO₂ to C. oso, "whole, complete, entire"; (IE we/e:su-, good, excellent, *whole, *undamaged [cf. Latvian vEsEls]; this must be kept separate from IE su/u:-, "good", from PL S[H]O-F[H]A, ["clan-s"]; the second element (SE-FA) is the su- in sua:d-, "sweet" [SE-FA+?E-T[?]A{tooth-give}] = "sweet-eat"); (cf. Sumerian šu-2, "totality"; šu, "*hand", in compound verbs, should be interpreted as "all")

(69)SA-"PF[H]O-F[H]A-S[H]A, ("strong-puff-s=bubbles=happy"-state), ZPO₂Z to C. poz in poztu, "be joyful" (cf. puspulu, "bubble" [SA-PF[H]O-"F[H]A-SE {"-emit"}, ZPUS]); (cf. IE pus-, *happy [Greek pu:siáo:, "snort"; Russian pychát(B), "pant"; Russian pýchat(b), "high-spirited"]", listed under 1. pu/u:-, "blow up, *bubble [cf. Norwegian fo[/]sa, "bubble {ferment}"]"; cf. pus-, "stink ["odor-emit"/state], listed under 2. pu/u-, "rot, stink" [PF[H]A]F[H]A-SE/S[H]A]); (cf. Egyptian pz, "cook", which has the alternate form fz [p-w-z to fz]); (cf. Sumerian puš [for *pus-x unless for PF[H]O-F[H]A-SE, "emit puffs=bubbles"], "beer")

(70)SA-P[H]O-"F[H]A-SO, ("strong-swell-ing (up)-pull"=inhale [and hold]"), ZPUZ to puz in puztu, "inflate"; (cf. IE pus-, *blow up [Greek pu:so:, "blow up"; Russian pýchat(b), "blow up"]", listed under 1. pu/u:-, "blow up"); (cf. Sumerian bu, "blow"; puš -3 [for *bus-x unless for P[H]O-F[H]A-SE, "emit puffs" ], "respected [inflated=important]")

(71)"?E-S[H]E-¿A, ("then-separate one's self"-perfective), ESI to etsi, "abandon, desist"; (IE se, "to one side, separated"; 2. se:(i)-, "send off, throw, let fall, sow, let up, let loose, delay [late, slow, long-lasting], relaxation, rest, sinking down; on the other side, to stretch the hand towards, tension, power")

(72)SA-¿A-FA, ("strong-eye=see-ing"), ZAYO₂to ZYO₂ to C. so, "look, glance, gaze"; (IE se:u-, "notice, see, show, scent, track", listed under 1. sek[w]-; (cf. Egyptian si(3), "recognize, perceive, know, be aware of"); (cf. Sumerian si-17, *see (J. 798 = si-17, means "see")

(73)N[H]A-"S[H]A-¿E, ("vibrate"-state-"-like"), LASAI to C. lasai, "loose"; (IE le:s(i)-, "loose, feeble")

(74)FA-"Q[H]A-¿E, ("round-hump-like"),UKAI + "FA-NA-T[?]O("round-thing-lump=haunch"), ONTO to C. ukai, "elbow, forearm=flexible joint" + C. ondo, "side", in ukondo/uka(l)ondo, "elbow"; (IE wenk-, "*elbow, bend"; l. wek-, "bend" + wend(u)-, "*haunches [cf. Old Indian vandhúra, "wagonseat"], listed under 1. wendh-, "turn, wind, wend, plait, thatch"); ( cf. Sumerian ug-4, *bend one's self); (cf. Arabic waqa?a, "kneel [camel]"; waqama, "humble")

(75) also in C. ukarai, "wrist": uka + *arai, *joint (?A-R[H]A-¿E, {"limb-fly-like=flexible"}; IE (a)ri/i:-, *joint" [cf. Ossetic är/lm-äri[.]n, "elbow"], listed under 1. ar-, "fit together, suit, pile up"); (cf. Egyptian i3.t, "back")

(76)¿E-?A-P[H]A-¿E-NA-¿A, ("then-top-be over-like-at"-perfective), IPINI -> ipini, "place, grasp, put, put on clothing"; (IE e:pi-, "grasp, take, reach", listed under 1. ap-); (cf. Egyptian ipi, "count, pay, muster, etc."); (cf. Sumerian eb-2, "*bring" [J. 411 reads eb-2, and means "bring"])

(77)?A-RO-"FA, ("top-raise=pil(e)-ing up"), AROU -> L, LN, Z, U: arau, "rule (noun)"; (IE 1. ar-, "fit together, suit, pile up, *order [cf. Old Indian Rtám, "holy order"]); (cf. Egyptian iri, "make, do"; ir.t, "duty"); (cf. Sumerian al, "keep")

(78)SA-PF[H]E-(¿E-)NA-T[?]O-?A-RO, ("strong-sparkle-(like-)thing-lump+top-raise=create")-tu, ZPINTAR -> C. pindar-tu, "sparkle, scintillate, get angry"; (IE 1. sp(h)e(n)d-, "gleam, jerk, fidget"); (cf. Egyptian b{i}n[b{i}n], "sacred stone in Heliopolis, heron"; b[i]nw, "phoenix"; b[i]nw.t, "kind of hard stone"; b[i]nt, "name of sun god's son"; b[i]nd, "hard birth or abortion"); (cf. Arabic fanna, "adorn"; fanârun, "paper lantern, lighthouse")

(79)HHA-S[H]E-¿E-tu, ("water-leave-like=dry"), ASI-tu -> IS-tu -> (h)is-tu, "dry up, shrivel"; (IE a/a:s-, "burn, glow"; *a/a:si-, "*dry [cf. Latin a:reo:, "am dry"; a:ridus, "dry"]); (cf. Egyptian iz, "light [*dry]"); (cf. Sumerian esh-5, "dry"); (cf. Arabic HasHasa, "roast [meat] on coals")

(80)SA-PF[H]E-"HA-R[H]E-¿E, ("strong-sparkle"-stative-"make-like"), ZPA(:)RE₂ -> farre, "laughter, laugh, smile"; (IE 1. sp(h)er-, "jerk, push away with the feet, wriggle, shoot out of; related to pre:-, "emit sparks, spurt, burst out laughing, puff", listed under 1. per-); (cf. Egyptian b33.wt, "virility" [the determinative is an ejaculating phallus]); (cf. Sumerian par, "*flame up [J. 684 reads par, means "flame up"]); (cf. Arabic tafarrara, "laugh [at]")

(81)SO-"¿E-FA-RA, ("skin-like-s-backbone=back"), ZOIOR -> ZYO₂R -> SO₂R -> sor, "back" in sorburu, "shoulder" = sor + buru, "top"); (cf. also sorbalda, "shoulder" = sor + balda, "shelf"); (IE so:(u)ra: (for *syoura [cf. Latin su:ra, "calf of the leg, *back"); (cf. Egyptian s(i)3, "back");(Sumerian *shur, *shoulder (Comb. 897 = J. 171, gu-2, "neck" + J. 832, lal = "shoulder" [the Akkadian transcription is shurru]: J. 833, which is a duplication of J. 832, in combination with J. 281{shi/er-3}, reads shur-4 {but perhaps also *shir})

(82)SE-¿E-M[H]A-HHA-F[H]A-R[H]E, ("emit-like-activity=excretion"+"water-s-fall"), SIMA-UR -> simaur, "manure"= sima, "*excretion"+ ur, "water" (v. (14) above); (IE sei-mo-, "dribble", listed under sei-); (cf. Arabic sayyaHa, "let flow")

(83)P[?]FE-¿E-?A-"T[?]A-SO ("foot-like+hand-pull=pluck(er)=finger"), PE₂-(T)AZ -> C. be(h)atz, "toe" [L, LN, Z, U: (h)atz, "thumb, finger"; from A- (body part classifier; ?A-) + *TAZ], ; (IE -bh(o/a:), forms animal names, "*foot -> *track"; in am-bhi-, "at both sides (*feet)"; (cf. Egyptian *b, "*foot"); (cf. Sumerian pi/e, "*foot" [one of the pictures behind J. 788 portrays 'two feet']; as-3, "one <- *finger"); (N.B. Arabic banânun, "toes"); (IE des- [probably seen in L, LN, Z: e-de(*z)-ki, "take from, remove"], "pluck", listed under da:-, "part, cut apart, rip up"; and des-, "find, investigate")

(84)?A-¿E-RE-"¿E, ("stem-like=limb-fingernail-like"), E₂RI ->C. eri, "finger"; (IE *air(i)-, "pole", listed under 4. ei-, "pole" [cf. Latvian ai[~]ris, rudder); (cf. Egyptian in i3.t, "standard"; i33.t, "rod"); (cf. Arabic ?airun, "penis"); (cf. Sumerian ir-3, "*penis" [J. 89 reads ir-3, pictures a 'penis']; iri-8, "*pole" [J. 112 reads iri-8, and means "support", pictures a 'forked stick'])

(85)¿E-R[H]E-¿E-F[H]A-"T[?]O-NA-¿A, ("then-rain-like=(rain)drop=drip-(p)ing-lump=raindrop-at"-perfective), ERIU(T)ONI -> ERIO₂IN -> C. erion, "spill"; (IE re:iw-, "flow [cf. Latin ri:vus, "stream"], listed under 3. er-, "set in motion"); (cf. Egyptian i3t.t, "milk"; i3d.t, "dew, rain"); (cf. Sumerian ri-4, "flow")

(86)"?A-T[?]SA-RA-NA, ("forehead/plant-top+body=stem-tree=thorn(bush)=antler"), ATARA: -> ATA(:)R -> C. adar, "branch, antler" [N.B. LN: adarño, "small branch"]; (IE *a, "*face", in ants-, "front side, forehead [v. (93) below]" + *dher-no-, *thorn", listed under dheregh-, "thorn"; 7. (s)ter-n-, "in words for sticking plant-stems, *thorn"); (cf. Egyptian D3, "fire-drill" [cf. Basque dara-tulu, "drill"]; D3D3, "tip of bow" [cf. Coptic tar, "branch, point"]); (cf. Sumerian at-2, "thorn" [?A-T[?]SA])

(87)HA-F[H]O-"¿E-SA-¿E, ("air-blow-like=wind+strong-like"), HA(W)IZE₂ -> L, LN, Z, U: haize, "wind"; (IE (a)we:is-, "*blow (wind)" in we:is-ro-, "whirlwind", listed under 10. aw(e)-, "sigh, blow, breath"); (cf. Arabic hawa:, "blows")

(88)"Q[H]O-Q[H]O-tu, ("all-wrapped around=fastened"), K₄OK₄O-tu ->L, LN: koka-tu, "hang"; (IE kenk-, "peg for hanging up", listed under keg-); (cf. Egyptian ggw, "stare" ["be hung on?"])(cf. Sumerian kak, "peg" [cf. Basque kako, "hook" {Q[H]O-"Q[H]O}])

(89)HA-"¿E-SO ("air-like-pull=gasp"), IZ + ¿E-NA ("-like-thing), -EN -> C. izen, "name"; (IE 5. ai-, "important speech"; / + T[H]O-S[H]A ("collection"-state) -> -TZ -> hitz, "word"; (IE aitos, "oath", listed under 5. ai-, "important speech" ; cf. also 2. ais-, "be respectful, honor"); (cf.possibly Arabic ismu-n, "name": dissimilation from *isnu-n, or another formant?)

(90)P[?]FA-¿E-"NA-tu, ("prominent-like=visible+thing=view"), P₂E₂(N)A-tu -> be(h)a-tu, "take a look"; (IE bhain-, "*view (verb)", in Albanian Tosk bënj, "make, do [=look into]", listed under 1. bha:-, "gleam, illuminate, shine"); (cf. Arabic abâu, "exhibit goods for sale"); (cf. Egyptian bi[3]i, "wonder, marvel")

(91)SA-FE-TS[H]A-¿E-tu ("strong-powerful-rear up-like=erect"), ZUTI-tu -> C. zuti-tu, "stand"; (IE su-, "well, good" + *ta:i, "stand", listed under l. sta:-, "stand, place")

(92)N[H]E-F[H]A-NA, ("entwin(e)-ing-thing=wool"), LEUN -> C. leun, "soft, fluffy"; (IE leun-, "wool", listed under 2. leu-, "cut off, separate, let loose {to 'wool'}"); (cf. Egyptian nwn, "disheveled")

(93)?A-NA-T[H]O-S[H]A, ("forehead-thing=feature+collection-state=resemblance"), ANTZ -> C. -antz, "resemblance, familiarity"; B: antza, "it seems (like), it appears (like)"; B, G, U: antza izan, "look like, resemble"; (IE ants-, "front side, forehead, face")

(94)?E-HHE-HHE-T[?]SA-NA-¿A, ("then-all-gone-body=air passage->pass through-at"-perfective), E₂TANI -> E₂TAIN -> C. edan, "drink"; (IE eidh-, "throat", in Greek isthmós, (*idh-dhmos?) "throat", listed under 1. ei-, "go")

(95)?A-K[?]E-NA, ("limb-penis->jab-thing=goad"), AGE^NA -> C. aga, long pole, (IE ag[^]-, "drive, *goad stick" [cf. Old Indian ash-Tra:, "goad for driving cattle"]; (cf. Sumerian ag-2, "send"); (cf. Egyptian ik, "challenge")

(96)"?A-N[H]A, ("top-move=grow"), AL(A) -> C. al, "can, be able "; -ala, "able to (verbal suffix)"; (IE al(i)-, "beyond" ["*pertaining to the other side of a recognized boundary"]; 2. al-, "grow, make grow, nourish"); (cf. Egyptian in(i), "overcome" ["*grow out of"]); (cf. Sumerian al, "keep, bear interest, *mature [cf. ab-2-al, "sexually mature cow"]; al-, verbal prefix meaning "finished='grown'"; (cf. Arabic. ?alyân, "large")

(97)SA-KX[H]A-F[H]A-SA-¿A-FA, ("(strong-)point-ing-strong-eye=look-ing") , ZKA^WAZ^YU -> kasu, "attention, care"; (IE keu-s-, "pay attention to (observe, look), then 'hear, feel, notice'"; kou-os, "careful"; ke:udos, "glory, fame"; skeu-, listed under 1. keu-); k[^]a:s-, direct, instruct, teach); (cf. Egyptian H(w)z, "favor, praise"); (cf. Sumerian kash, "reward")

(98)"FA-R[H]E-F[H]A-(NA), ("circle-com(e)-ing -> round trip-> great distance -> far-[at]") "URUN -> B, U: urrun, "far, distant); (IE weru-, "far, broad", listed under 9. wer-); (cf. Egyptian w3, "far, brood (*go around in circles), roast (*on a spit)"); (cf. Sumerian ur-3, "strong, lasting")

(99)S[H]O-"F[H]A-¿E-NA, ("clan-s-like-one") Z^WAIN -> ZAIN -> Z^YAN -> SE₂N -> C. sen- in sen-ar, "husband"; sen-di, family; sen-ide, "relative"; sen-idego, "brotherhood"); (IE *swain-, "*relative", listed under 2. sewe-, "own", under se-, "to one side, separated")

(100)PF[H]E-¿E-NA, ("sting-like-thing "), P₂IN -> C. min, "pain"; (IE pe:(i)-, "hurt, damage, defame"); (cf. Egyptian bin, "bad, evil")

(101)?E-"T[H]O-R[H]E-¿A, ("then-heat-come"-perfective), E(T)ORE₂ -> C. erre, "burn"; (IE te:ra:, listed under 2. ste/er:-, "star, *burn" [cf. Greek stérops, "shimmer, flicker"]

(102)?A-RA-"SO-¿E, (bodypart classifier+"spinal column-skin-like->back"), ARZE₂ -> "AZZE₂ -> B, G, U: atze, "back part"; (IE ers(i)-, "behind, tail")

(103)P[?]FO-¿E-HHO-N[H]A-F[H]A-NA ("leg-like-descend-mov(e)-ing-thing"), P₂E(:)₂LAUN -> C. belaun, "knee", (IE *bhei-, "leg", only in combination; (e)leuni-, "bone over the knee, axle-nail", listed under 8. el-, "bend" (PL (?E)-HHO-N[H]A-F[H]A-NA-¿E, "away-descend-mov-ing-thing-like=swivel").

(104)?A-SA-N[H]A, (bodypart classifier+"strong-glitter"), AZAL -> C. azal, "skin, bark, crust"(probably also in e-tzal-di, "nap", i.e. "time spent on the skin", i.e. "back"); (IE 2. sal-, "gray, *whitish like (sea-)salt")

(105)P[?]A-"¿E, ("half-like=two"), PI -> C. bi, "two"; also in be-, classifier for parts on the body occurring in pairs; (IE wi/i:-, "two"); (cf. also Arabic baiya:, "imitate")

(106)?A-QA-¿E-SO-"FA-RE (bodypart+"marrow-like-skin=bone-s-any"), A(^N)K₄IZA"UR -> *"AI^(N)(K₄)ZUR -> E₂(N)ZUR-> L, LN, Z, U: hezur (R: enzur); (cf. Sumerian gish, "bone"); (IE ksu- in ksu-ro- [better *ksur], listed under kes-, "scratch, comb"; IE kost-, "leg, bone"); (cf. Egyptian q(i)s [Coptic kis], "bone")

(107)P[?]A-¿E-¿A-¿E, ("half-like=two=bodypart classifier (2)-eye-like"), PE₂(?)I -> C. begi, "eye"; (IE in e:n, "look there!"; as ¿A-¿E-NA, "eye-like-thing/one"(cf. Greek e:é:n and Latin e:n) ; (cf. Arabic ¿ayin, "eye"); v. (109) below

(108)P[?]A-¿E-FO-¿E-SO-¿E-RE-¿E, ("half-like=two=bodypart classifer (2)-ear-like-skin-like-any"), PE₂(?)UISIRE -> PE₂UISRI -> PE₂UIRRI -> PE₂(?)ARRI -> B, G: belarri; L, N, Z: beharri; HH, R: begarri; HN, R Sal: bearri, "ear"; (IE *o:usri- in Old Irish arae, "temple", listed under 2. o:us-, "ear"; [cf. Avestan ushi, "both ears"]); (cf. Sumerian ge/ish, "ear");

(109)P[?]A-¿E-¿A-¿E-P[?]FA-R[H]E-FA, ("half-like=two=bodypart classifier (2)-eye-like-"chin-fall=beard"-dual"), PE₂I +P₂ARU -> C. bepuru, "eyebrow"; (for "eye", v. (107) above; (IE 1. bhru:-, "eyebrow"; the IE forms look to have been contaminated by compounding with (*j)a from ¿A, "eye" [cf. Greek oprûs, "brow"])

(110)?A-T[?]A-"F[H]A-R[H]E, (bodypart classifier-"hand-far=wide"), ATE"UR -> A"(T)UR -> L, LN, Z, U: a(h)ur, "palm"; (IE dwer-, "span of the hand", listed under 1. der-)

". . . a connection between Basque and Indo-European would seem to be a priori one of the most implausible suggestions that could possibly be made (Trask 1997: 368)".

The correspondence of 110 roots and many formants suffices for a preliminary study
to establish the presumption of a genetic relationship.

PL MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN BASQUE

(not included under lexical headings)

press here to see.

The correspondence of 110 roots and 40+ formants suffices for a preliminary study

to establish the presumption of a genetic relationship.

This notation of the Proto-Basque is based on that of "Pre-Basque", taken
from Trask (1997:126):

Consonants

(p) b

t d N n

ts s

tz z

k g

R r

L l

*h (see below)

The following consonants were pronounced with fortisarticulation: (p), t, ts, tz, k, R, L, N,
which was characterized by complete occlusion; R was a trill.

The following consonants were pronounced with lenis articulation: b, d, s, z, g, r, l, n, which was characterized by incomplete occlusion and consequent longer duration; r was a flap.

In view of the fact that fortis articulation is confined to final position (avocalic); and medial position, which Trask attributes solely to gemination with good reason (Trask 1997:126-7); there is no reason not to accept Trask's proposal to reduce the consonant inventory to eight members:

Gemination

In CVC words, the final consonant must be fortis, and the initial consonant must be lenis; this clearly ties fortition to lack of stress-accent since a final avocalic consonant cannot be stress-accented.

Therefore in CVCV words, the medial C will be fortis if it is not stress-accented; "CVCV becomes "C^lenisV-C^fortis(C)V; but CV"CV becomes C^lenisV-"C^lenisV.

1. This is understandable if we realize that the salient difference between fortis and lenis is duration of the lenis. The feature of duration inherent in a stress-accented syllable is augmented by the duration of its initial consonant (lenis) and consonantal closure of the syllable (gemination/fortition) when a consonant is available for it.

2. The lack of e: and o: in stress-accented syllables is due to the circumstance that, in CVCV words, the syllable is closed by a consonant which does not allow the necessary time for vocalic closure to take place.

We will see that this represents an extreme reduction and simplification of the PL consonantal inventory, which is probably attributable to ethnic admixture.

Vowels

i, e, a, o, u

e a o

which represent open front, central, and back vowels, in stress-accented syllables.

But N.B. "mouse", sagu, is derived from PL SE, "grain" + K[?]A(-¿A)-FA, "jaws, chew up"), shows a for PL E, with the s maintaining the identity of the original palatal syllable. With other consonants, the glides were lost with no change.

Combinatory Modifications

for modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination, see the

Table of Modifications

PROTO-LANGUAGE MONOSYLLABLES

In order for readers to judge the semantic plausibility of the analysis of Proto-Language (PL) CVC(V) compounds suggested here, I am including access to a table of Proto-Language monosyllables and the meanings I have provisionally assigned.

Most assignments can be exhaustively supported by data from actually attested forms but a few animates are very doubtful; and this list does not pretend to represent the "final" solution of these questions, which will only be approached more closely when other scholars assist in refining it.

Patrick C. Ryan

Summer 1997

BASQUE BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

NOTES

2. On pages 369-70 (Trask 1997), Trask discusses Basque argi, "light, bright", and Basque arto, "maize", earlier "millet", without one considering the common element ar(a)- might mean "white", which it plainly does in aratz, "pure, clean, brilliant"(L, U); arbi, "turnip", a white vegetable; ardo/ardan, "wine", at least in one variety, "white"; ardi, "sheep", a usually white animal; aritz, "oak tree"(from its "white" acorn kernels {cf. IE are:i-, listed under 3. ar-, "nut"}); bolstered by IE arenko-, "a kind of grain", Middle Irish arbar, "grain"; ara:n, "bread"; and Egyptian i3q, "leeks, vegetables in general"; it looks very much like Basque arto, "millet", is simply "HHA-R[H]A-T[?]O, "white-lump=grain", corresponding indirectly to IE ardi-, "spike, barb", referring to the awn of the wheat.

3. this ba is the source of the b- prefix of the jussive (see Trask 1997:219); it is clear now (since Trask 1977), that the third person verb form is the simple stem, the prefix of which is determined by modal considerations.

4. see Trask 1997:212-3; in other cases, including izan (from*e-aza-n-i), "be (at)"; jakin(from *e-aiko-n-i), "know (be knowledgeable at)"; joan(from *e-(*b₃)oina-n-i), "go"; edun (from*e-du-n-i), "have (have been presented with . . . at"; ukan (*e-duka-n-i), "have", and jan (from e-e(*d)a-n-i), "eat". the -n- is a locative suffix indicating the anticipation of an object in the locative.

5. Also interesting is the obvious correspondence of Basque gu, "we, us", with Sumerian gu, "my", from PL QO-FA, "skull=animate"+circumlocative".

6. The adverb gora, "upward" (which must be kept separate from gora, "high"), which can be segmented into *go- + -ra, "to", suggests strongly that the word for "something high" was originally *go, and that goi is an adjective derived from it (go+i). Now the words for "high" in IE are based on the stem 2. keu-, "round heap" (cf. koupo-s, "mountain"). Since we know that Basque o can represent older Vu/w, we can assume an Proto-Basque form of KO₂. Now a common IE form, from which English "high" is derived, is IE keuk-, presumably a reduced reduplication (*keukeu). Since the k is not palatalized, we know we are dealing with an original Caw or Cow. Also, we have the form kho:laka, "ant hill", in Old Indian, which suggest that we are dealing with an affricate (Old Indian kh is from PLKX[H]). Egyptian has the word HH, "million", that is written with a seated man with both arms bent, reaching toward the sky; in addition, he wears a feather on his head that is associated with concepts of height (Sw, "ascend").

Since H cannot represent PL KX[H]O and keu- cannot represent KX[H]E, I conclude that the form is based on PL KX[H]A, "bee, pointed", and in the form KXHA-F[H]A, means "puncturing (cf. IE 6. ske:u-, "poke"). The ultimate reference for this conception of "high"is a mountain peak which pokes into or punctures the sky.

7. In an unusual section of an otherwise informative book, Trask (1997:227-9) informs us that the formant -ki should be interpreted as a "dative flag", and a second "dative flag", is identified as -tsi, which we will identify now as PL S[H]E, "separate one's self, go from" (cf. IE se-, "separated", and 2. se:(i)-, "send off, etc.). They appear, for example, in e-ba-ts-i, "steal", and e-ba-k-i, "cut"; and the simplex can be seen in e-ba-i, "cut" (*ba is IE 1. wa:-, "wound, *split"; PLP[?]A-?A). If *ba is "split", then a natural adverbial modification is "up": *ba-k-, "split up"; and *ba-ts-, "split from", is a good descriptive phrase for "steal". The verb e-go-n, "be", really means "attached (PLQO)-at (-n)"; when we realize that this is its basal meaning, the verb e-go-ki, "fit, suit, correspond to", transparently can be analyzed as : "attached up". Particularly clear is jarri, "put" (*e-ar-i; *ar- is seen in arau, "rule ("what has been set up"); IE 1. ar-, "heap up, set up") contrasting with jarki, "oppose, resist" (*e-ar-k-i, "put up"); and e-ra-ba-ki, "decide" ("cause to be split up"; really "adjudicate by apportioning"). With -tsi forms, it is equally clear: i-kus-i, "see" (e-kus-i; IE keus-, "become aware of", listed under 1. keu-) vs. e-ra-kuts-i, "show" ([*e-ra-kus-ts-i] "cause to become aware of something from"); uka-n, "have" ("lead at" [*e-duka-n); IE deuk-, "lead", pull") vs. e-u-ts-i, "seize, grasp, hang on to" ("lead from" [*e-duk-ts-i]). The difference between jarrai(n), "follow", and jarraiki, "follow", is "follow at" vs. "follow up"; the difference between itsatsi, "stick", and itxeki (palatalized), "stick", is "stick from" as opposed to "stick up" (cf. also: ideki/irteki, "open (up)"; jaiki, "get up"; izeki, "burn (up)"; erauntsi, "stick (from)"; inotsi, "flow (from)"; jautsi, "go down (from)"; irauntsi, "say, tell (from)"; irautsi, "persist with" ("*last from"; cf. irau-n, "last (at)").

These elements, according to Trask, also appear as "dative flags"in the finite verb. In the finite verb, according to Trask, -ki can be reduced to -i. To come to this conclusion when the dative plural termination for nouns is -ei (corresponding to IE -ei) seems odd to say the least. It should be clear that in finite verbs, the dative flag -i- is simply nominal -ei, which derives from PLHHE-HHE (dissimilated to HHE-¿E), "all gone (go away) to".

a. I am aware that some readers, who may entertain the possibility of an early connection between Indo-European and Basque, will not be able to accept the possibility of a reconstruction of a language as early as the Proto-Language. To those readers, may I suggest that the Proto-Language reconstruction be merely regarded as an expression of an arbitrary system of notation that allows for the regular relationships of correspondence between Indo-European and Basque.

b. These semantic proposals are based on the meanings of Proto-Language monosyllables deduced from many languages but primarily Egyptian and Sumerian, which, I believe, have conservatively preserved the meanings of these early monosyllables through their writing systems. Whether the meanings are plausible to the reader or not has no bearing on whether the forms are phonologically related.