LECTURE – SOCIAL THEORY

Dr. Fred Magdalena

Meanings of Theory

Thought=Theory; Cuzzort uses thought, other social scientists abide by the convention "theory"

Thought/Theory

● a statement or set of statements that explain what is already known or what needs to be known (predict) in the future.

● An abstraction or generalized view of“reality”. Social theorizing supplanted the age of faith with the age of reason (18^th century). In the eastern world, it had come as early as the 12^th century, thanks to Ibn Khaldun for his now classic book Muqadimmah in which he explained the social and historical forces of dynasties, and the concept of “civilization” as a system of restraint.

Here are one-line summaries of some sociological theories (from Ritzer, 1996) known today:

● capitalism tends to sow the seeds of its own destruction

● the modern world has less moral cohesion than earlier societies

● people put on a variety of theatrical performances reflecting the way they live

● the social world is defined by principles of reciprocity in give-and-take relations

● people create the social world that ultimately enslaves them

● society is an integrated system of social structures and functions

● the world is becoming a homogenous, global village

Other Definitions of Theory on the Web - Samples

A theory is a logical explanation or model based on observation, facts, hypotheses, experimentation, and reasoning that attempts to explain a range of natural phenomena. Theories are constantly subject to testing, modification, and refutation as new evidence and ideas emerge. Theories also have predictive capabilities that guide further investigation.
http://www.user.mc.net/~kwentz/eduspeak.html

An organised set of propositions intended to explain existing data in some domain and to predict future observation. Theories are either true or false. Good theories explain present data as well as (correctly) predicting future data. Theories generate hypotheses in order to test the value of a theory but not all theories can be tested (e.g., Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory could explain the cases observed previous to its creation as well as making some predictions about future findings but it could not be directly tested for 'truthfulness' because it involved un-conscious drives).
http://www.brookes.ac.uk/schools/social/psych/designingl.html

A tentative theory about the natural world; a concept that it is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena; a "scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory"
http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/webwn

More from http://www.google.com/search?q=define:theory

Two routes to explanation

1. Inductive – a reasoning or theorizing that moves from specific observations to a general explanation. Individual experiences about certain things, like studying with others make yourself (and some others) pass the course. Hence, you argue that group study is an effective method of passing (not necessarily learning).
2. Deductive – a reasoning or theorizing that moves from the general to the specific. At the outset, you may think that going to school is necessary to prepare you for life, because most people who have done so have succeeded in life by earning more, and making the most out of the situation.

Uses of theory

1. Stirs up people’s imagination and creativity to pursue a new vision, theory provides us with ideas to address our social problems. Theory is not a quest for truth but rather a quest to open up imagination.
2. Provides an approach to looking at social issues (poverty, deviance, corruption, dominance and repression, etc.). For example, poverty is explained by a theory developed and proposed by Karl Marx that some people want to maintain their status by keeping those below them by exploitation, while others who live in poverty try to avoid or change this onerous relationship by changing the system and install egalitariansm (equality of all classes).
3. Informs us on the possible answers on how and why things happen the way they do, but seldom tells us what we should do to change an existing condition (latter lies in the realm of philosophy that is concerned with what should rather than what is or exists). Maybe this is due to the presumed link between theory and empiricism (the basis of scientific knowledge), that a theory may be verified on the basis of actual experience.

Caveats

1. There is no single explanation to these issues or realities. Often, we need multiple explanations
2. A theory is just a mere perspective or point of view. In itself, it is neither wrong nor correct.
3. Theory does not exist in a vacuum. It is complemented by methods, the set of techniques for verification of the theory, the kinds of observations and data required, and the way to treat these data.
4. A theory must relate to an existing, important issue or condition to be credible. Without this linkage, theory is sterile and useless.
5. Too much theory takes us away from humanism

Theory vs. Common Sense Explanation

Theory sometimes begins from folklore or ordinary folk wisdom. But the former is more formalized and structured than ordinary beliefs. Marxism derives its essence from the phrase “Money speaks louder than words.” Durkheim’s mechanical solidarity is based of the adage that “birds of the same feathers flock together.”

Paradigms

Underlying these differing views, theories and methods of looking at reality are paradigms. Paradigms are fundamental models or frames of reference we use to organize our observations and reasoning. A paradigm is the “broadest unit of consensus” within a field. It is a fundamental image of the subject matter says Thomas Kuhn, that serves to define (1) what should be studied, (2) what questions to ask, (3) how they should be asked, and (4) what rules to be followed in interpreting the answers. Hence, a paradigm encompasses theories and methods. Here are some paradigms:

1. Feministic Paradigm – the frame of analysis that exhorts women to rise up and achieve equality with men. Example is Elise Boulding’s The Underside of History: A View of Women through Time. It suggests a theory that women have been marginalized since time immemorial, that they are consigned to live in private spaces while men figure in public world. In the past, the more women participated in the labor market, the more wages dropped for them as they had no bargaining power and lack mobility.
2. Peaceful, Progressive World Paradigm – the view that the world we inhabit must be orderly and peaceful, that conflicts and wars be avoided. Comte’s positivism is anchored on this paradigm that sociology must be put into action for the benefit of mankind. The UN is a body inspired by this belief about a peaceful and progressive world. Conflict resolution theories/peace studies also fall under this paradigm.

George Ritzer suggests three paradigms encompassing sociological theories:

1. Social-Facts Paradigm – Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Talcott Parsons are among those who subscribe to this paradigms using their theories. Durkheim is known for his Theory of Anomie in which he explains the variations in the rates of suicide according to religion and social cohesion, while Marx looks at the class conflict to explain the possibility of an upheaval or revolution, and Parsons invokes a social-system theory and structural-functional analysis of society to explain order and stability.

2. Social-Definition Paradigm – Max Weber exemplifies this paradigm with his theory of rationality of action that leads to the rise of bureaucracy and routinization of charisma

3. Social-Behavior Paradigm – B.F. Skinner’s learning theory (called behaviorism in UK) is an example in which human behavior is seen as shaped by rewards and punishment. Another is exchange theory.

Positivism and Science

Positivism is associated with Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and later with Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). Positivism is mainly characterized by belief in science, hence may be called the precursor of the scientific method. While they share some things in common, they are differentiated thus:

Characteristics of science and positivism

Scientific Method	Positivism
Explanatory	Prioritizes observation
Predictive	Verificatory (proc. must show whether a Statement is true or false
Evidence based	Value free (moral values have no part in science
Seeks truth	Operationalist
Objective
Logical
Parsimonious