Islam in the Modern World: Politics, Women and War
Lecture Notes
By Clinton Bennett
POLITICS
From mid-nineteenth century, many Muslim North African, Eastern countries (former provinces of Islamic Empire) were under European colonial rule.
Colonial Governments established Western legal systems, Western education/curricular - often producing a secular, Western educated elite.
National movements began spearheaded by Western educated elite leading to independence, sometimes (Algeria) after years of war.
However, the new governments were modeled on Western lines. Often, former Islamic rulers had sidelined Islamic law in favor of own decrees/regulations. Islam had been domesticated. Effectively, religion and state were separated.
Sufi Islam: An Historic Alernative/Counter Tradition
Sufi tradition: as old as Islam. From suf = wool, pure.
Mystical tendency: emphasizes inner experience of perfection/purity. Sufis are travelers along a spiritual path: from nafs (ego/false self) towards fana (passing
away of self) into baqa (union with God).
Sheiks stand in a silsilah with Muhammad and guide the salikun.
Stages and states mark progress: renunciation, knowledge. Charismatic authority of Sheikhs sometimes challenged the routinized authority of the Khalif.
God is the ‘beloved’, Sufis are ‘lovers’. Much poetic imagery.
Tariqah = organized ‘order’; sama - group recitation/worship
Famous masters: al-Ghazali (d 1111); Rumi (d 12 73).
Tariqahs often operate as micro-states: own welfare systems, schools,
etc. As Empire marginalized Islam, many turned to Sufi Islam.
Sufi Muslims are often a-political: not interested in mega-system.
Modern Expressions of Islam
Following colonialism, many asked ‘why has Islam lost her prestige and position in the world?
Some said: because Qur’an is no longer at the center.
Governments are secular, Westernized. Often regarded as non-Muslim. True Islamic states should be ruled by God’s law. West is perceived as all pervasive/decadent/ globalization = McDonaldization.
Movements such as Muslim Brotherhood (founded 1929) want a restoration of 10th century shari‘ah (4 legal schools).
Most revivalist movements want elected Assemblies (shura = Consultation) but their job only to interpret shari‘ah.
Progressive Islam
Muhammad Iqbal (1873 - 1938) The Reconstruction of ReligiousThought in Islam (1930; Oxford University Press
Mahmoud Mohammed Taha (1909 - 1985) The Second Message of Islam (ET, 1987, Syracuse University Press)
Muhammad Arkoun Rethinking Islam (1994, Westview Press)
Argue: what is eternal, immutable, is the spirit or principles (usul) of the Qur’an, not particular applications, which can be re-interpreted.
Some argue for complete gender equality (Farid Esack, Qur'an, Liberation and Pluralism, Oxord, Oneworld, 1997).
A Left-Right Categorisation of Modern Islamic
Movements
Left right
 Progressive
Some argue for the separation of Islam from the State
but accept that a state whose majority is Muslim will want Islamic values to
inform its laws and systems.
This can have constitutional status.
Some want an Islamic State, even a global Islamic
entity. However, they want to
reinterpret Islam’s sources, distinguishing eternal values or principles from
time-specific applications. Thus,
even particular rules found in the Qur’an need not be applied today without
reinterpretation. The ideal Islam
lies in the future, not the past.
Some identify with the Mutazalites.
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Neo-traditionalist
Conservative view of
Islamic Law but open to
re-interpretation in some areas when not directly
contrary to the Qur’an or Hadith (sayings of the Prophet). Use the vocabulary of reform.
Advocate unity of Islam and
politics and campaign for the creation of an Islamic State but using
constitutional methods such as standing for election, propaganda and
education. Engage in dialogue with
the West but reject Western solutions as non-Islamic. Call for recognition of Islamic autonomy and
freedom to develop its own standards.
The West is not the arbiter of human rights and political
legitimacy. Ultimate aim a world
Islamic order.
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Traditionalists
Want to rebuild the lost, ideal Islam of the past
obscured by colonial rule as well as by Muslims who have deviated from the
ideal.
Share
with the neo-traditionalists a conservative understanding of Islamic
Law. Tend to support elitist forms of
government rather than constitutional systems, perceiving monarchy or rule by
an elite as closer to what they see in Islam’s past – the first Khalifs were
all members of Muhammad’s inner-circle. Later khalifs were from a royal
dynasty.
The West is not the source of all wisdom but
pragmatically many traditionalists are its military and commercial
allies. May be compared with the
Murjites.
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Radical revisionist
Share much the same view as their partners on the
right on such issues as Shari’ah, status of women, minorities. Tend to
agree with the traditionalists that an elite should govern, although in their
view this would consists of jurists and others qualified to apply the Shari’ah.
Radically oppose the West as Islam’s enemy and
denounce many Muslim regimes as infidel.
Call for jihad (armed struggle) against them. Engage in what they call military action
against their enemies, usually called terrorism by the West and by those
whose regimes they oppose.
Often compared with the kharijites of early
Islam.
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(Derived from categories used
by Esposito, 1991 chapter 6, 'Islam and Change: Issues of Authority and
interpretation", pp 192 – 218. It should be noted
that while the ‘left’ diverges from the ‘right’ in such areas as separation of
religion from politics, the
appropriateness of penalties, the status of women, free expression they share
many ethical and moral convictions and stand on common ground on issues of
social and economic justice).
Battling
for the Soul of Islam
A
battle is now taking place for the soul of Islam. On one side stand the moderates, those Muslims eager to accept
Western ways, confident to learn from outsiders, oriented towards democracy,
and ready to integrate in the world. On
the other stand the Islamists – fearful, seeking strong rule, hoping to push
the outside world away Daniel Pipes Militant Islam Reaches America (2002)
I
would describe Islam in two main categories, reactionary Islam and progressive
Islam (Benazir Bhutto, Kurzman (1998) p 107)
Women
On Women.
Qur’an guarantees right to inherit (lesser share but male duty to care for
females of family).
Right to work and to keep earnings (Q 4: 32).
Keeps bride price - balance payable if divorced.
Can divorce via courts on certain conditions which can be included in
marriage contract (4: 128).
Spiritually equal with men (33: 35)
As witnesses, two needed for one man. Women, it is said, were not used to public affairs and might be intimidated or confused.
Qur’an 4: 34 ‘men are in charge of women’: has been used to justify male superiority but can be interpreted to charge men with the task of physical protection
Do not have to attend Friday prayers.
Modesty of dress for men and women.
Veiling and Seclusion (see Q 33: 53 & 33: 59) originally only for the Mothers of the Believers.
Tenth century - extended to all women.
Early women: fought, contributed to collection of hadith/later,increasing patriarchal society increasing patriarchal society ‘protected’ its women.
Expansion = slaves = concubines = woman sexual object.
SEE: Leila Ahmed: Women and Gender in Islam, 1992 (Yale University Press)
And Fatima Mernissi: Women and Islam (1987) (Basil Blackwell)
Leila Ahmed’s autobiography, A Border Passage: From Cairo To America: a woman’s journey (1999) (Farrar, Strauss and Giroux)
A MUST READ READ READ READ!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
"The women … had their own understanding of Islam … different
from men’s Islam, ‘official’ Islam … Islam, as I got it from them,
was gentle, generous, pacifist, inclusive, somehow mystical … of
inner things …. So there are two quite different Islams, an Islam
that is in some sense a women’s Islam and an official, textual Islam,
A ‘men’s Islam" pp 121 - 123.
Women did ‘not have a man trained in the orthodox (male) literary
heritage of Islam telling them week by week and month by month
what it meant to be a Muslim, what the correct interpretation … is …
Rather, they figured things out for themselves … nor did they believe
that the sheikhs had an understanding of Islam superior to theirs’ p 124.
War
Early surahs summon Muhammad to promote/defend by persuasion (Q 16: 125).
After hijrah, armed retaliation is allowed (2: 190).
Initially, Muslims defended from Makkan attack.
Later, engaged in tactical action (aggressive) to extent power-base but within the context of ongoing hostility/opposition from Makkah.
630: Makkah surrendered peacefully.
Abu Bakr lays down rules for conduct of war: no crops/animals/churches/synagogues/civilians to be destroyed/killed/prisoners must be treated kindly.
After Muhammad
After Muhammad’s death, territorial expansion followed.
Known as ‘fath’, opening of Islam. Belief evolved that expansion was moral/obeying God if likely to succeed.
Vanguished invited: embrace Islam, or pay tax, or - if idolaters, accept death! Based on Q9: 5, ‘when the truce months are over, Slay the idolater wherever you find
them’. Martys promised paradise (hadith).
Has been used to justify unprovoked aggression to extend Dar-al- Islam into Dar-al-Harb. Muslim v Muslim never condoned.
BUT: balance of Qur’anic verses speak of policing treaties, defence, righting wrongs and inclining towards peace whenever possible(eg 9: 12; 8: 61), Muslim
conventions: developed that resemble just war.Some now say war can never meet the conditions laid down. Traditions cite Muhammad calling the military jihad the
lesser Jihad: the greater jihad is the struggler for inner purity and for justice in society.
M. M Taha was a pacifist. See Jihad: The Origins of Holy War in Islam (1999) by Reuven Firestone (Oxford, OUP) for detailed analysis of Qur'an and hadith on war.
Operation Enduring Freedom
Following the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre, New York and on the Pentagon, Washington attributed to Osama Bin Laden's Al Qaida terrorist network, the USA and her allies launched a war on terrorism (Operation Enduring Freedom). Much debate followed on the relationship between Islam and 'terrorism' and on the relationship between the Muslim and non-Muslim world. The war, according to some Muslims, represented a Western crusade against Islam. Others blamed the attacks on Zionists - thus Operation Enduring Freedom was the result of a Zionist/Western conspiracy. The Italian Prime Minister, controversially, described Islam as inferior to Western civilization. Others were quick to deny that 'Islam' and 'Muslims' were targets or that Islam condoned terrorism. Some material on Operation Enduring Freedom is available on my September 11 2001 Site.
Conclusion.
There is a remarkable degree of unity in Islam. Shi‘a and Sunni traditionally recognize each other/may pray in same Mosque.
Shi‘a often regarded as a fifth legal school.
Sufi Islam remains very popular and crosses all ‘schools’. However, the Qur’an, Sharia‘ah, Government, are understood differently by various schools. There is
no single entity out there to be corporately ‘feared’.
© 2001 Clinton Bennett