The Gallic Campaigns

Caesar had achieved much in his first 42 years, doing more than many men twice his age had done. He understood however that these times required more than just political and oratory skill. He would need more money and a considerable military reputation to secure the leadership he seemed to desire. The conquest and eventual assimilation of Gaul into the Roman state would do this for him. As a consequence the map and history of Europe would be forever changed. It would be the beginning of the Germanic and Romanic difference in cultural feeling and idealistic nationalism that would exist between the lands of Gaul (France) and Germania (Germany) for 2039 years and lead to countless wars and atrocities. Although Caesar fought the Germans several times the Romans even now realized they were a very different people than those in Gaul. Unlike almost all other Roman wars, this one is more notable due to Caesar's own detailed account of the events told from his perspective known as the "Commentaries on the Gallic War" or De Bellum Gallico in Latin.

Rome's northern border was established in 125 BC. Of what is today France the only part that Rome controlled was Transalpine Gaul or Gaul "across" the Alps. This was basically the French Riviera plus the lower Rhone river valley with territory extending from lake Geneva to the Rhone valley then west to the Garrone and Derdogne rivers then south to the Pyrenean mountains at the coast where the province of Hispania is beyond. Geographically speaking Transalpine Gaul could also be considered all of modern France and Caesar set out to make the whole area Roman.

In the winter of 59/58 BC the tribe of the Helvetii was planning to migrate from Switzerland to Aquitaine. To do this they would travel through Roman allied territory and then possibly they would pose a threat to Roman territory. There were 263,000 of them with 105,000 from 4 other tribes. of these 92,000 were fit to bear arms. Caesar now in command as governor gathered his 4 legions together and raised two more from Cisalpine Gaul. His decision to attack the Helvetii seems to be both for glory, security and revenge. As governor he was expected to make sure that Roman territory would never be in danger. Because the Helvetii had cause damage to the area through which they passed, the local tribes asked Caesar to protect them. Part of the migrants were descendants of those who defeated a Roman army in 107 BC and killed the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, the grandfather of Caesar's father-in-law. On about May 1, he fought the Helvetii in a long 9 hour battle in which only 110,000 out of the original 368,000 population survived. Caesar sends the survivors back to their original homeland, in order that they can serve as a buffer state between the Roman state and the Germans beyond.

Caesar next decided to use the remainder of the campaigning season to eliminate the next greatest threat to Gaul other than himself, the German Ariovistus. Ironically this man was declared a "friend of the Roman people" during Caesar's own consulship the prior year, but now he was an enemy of Caesar's new allies in the Aedui tribe, and other tribes didnt like the Germans at all. The Gallic tribes met with Caesar and requested help against these people Also Ariovistus stood in Caesar's way. He himself says that Ariovistus questions the Rome's right to go beyond their current border, in fact it was against Caesar's own laws which he passed as consul. Ariovistus considered Gaul his affair and not of concern to Caesar. Caesar did however have Ariovistus on a technicality, that he had not helped the Romans or their allies in the last war in the area. The idea was basically that 'Gaul isn't big enough for the 2 of us. Ariovistus did not come to meet Caesar at a point halfway between their forces. Caesar sent ambassadors stating what conditions were required if the Germans were to stay friends of the Roman people: that they abandon the Rhone valley, return the hostages from the allied Gallic tribe the Aedui, and never fight against them. The German leader declared that the Romans had no place telling a German conqueror how to rule the lands he had conquered before Caesar arrived. Word came to Caesar that the Germans were attacking his allies, so war began. It was fought in the first half of September. After a week of minor skirmishing an impatient Caesar drove his six legions at the enemy camp. The soldiers by his own account fought tremendously and he himself fought in the ranks on the right wing. Under intense pressure the right wing was saved when Roman cavalry under Publius Licinius Crassus came to the rescue. This man was the son of the Triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus. The German forces were routed and they fled towards the Rhine. Ariovistus later escaped with his life in a small boat. The Roman cavalry easily slays the remainder who have to flee on foot the 50 miles to the Rhine. Perhaps 25,000 Germans died. The Romans also rescue two of their citizens from the enemy: Gaius Valerius Procillus who was a friend of Caesar, and Marcus Mettius. Caesar, the victor of two wars in one season, decides to winter his men in eastern Gaul among the Sequani under Propraetor Titus Labienus while he himself winters in Cisalpine Gaul, conducting his duties as the Governor.

Meanwhile in Rome during 58 BC Caesar's old "friend" Publius Clodius Pulcher who caused the breakup of his second marriage served his term as Tribune of the Plebs. He had got elected the year before partly due to Caesar! His greatest achievement this year was to force the exile of Cicero! Clodius had two laws passed that forced him into exile in the east. The first stated that no Roman citizen could be executed without trial, the second was to exile anyone who did. Both painted a bull's eye on Cicero's head since he had as consul executed the Catilinian conspirators on December 5, 63 BC without a giving them a proper trial. On April 29 Cicero was forced to leave when Pompey didn't help him. This was all revenge since it was Cicero who humiliated Clodius in February 61 BC when he prosecuted him for being at the women only Bona Dea festival at Caesar's house on December 3, 62 BC. Clodius also got rid of Marcus Porcius Cato by sending him off to conquer (or annex) Cyprus. Clodius even managed to intimidate Pompey when he had his slave drop a knife and confesses he was to assassinate him there at the Senate house. Pompey didn't do much during Clodius' tribuneship. Clodius was riding high in 58 BC.

In Cisalpine Gaul in the spring of 57 BC Caesar received reports that the tribes of the 3rd part of Gaul, the Belgae, were forming a confederation to counter the Roman presence. In June Caesar sends his lieutenant Pedius to gather intelligence. As expected the Belgae are raising troops. Caesar has just raised 2 new legions, his total now 8. Joining the army, he marches his men north towards today's Belgium in only 15 days. He arrives in the Amiens area earlier than expected which would suggest it is late July. An alliance was made with the Remi, a border tribe in the Belgae region. They become trusted friends of Caesar. The Belgae make the mistake of attacking the Remii town of Bibrax, 8 miles from the Roman camp. In the Roman way of war this means that they can do whatever it takes to save an ally. The Romans move 2 miles distance to the Belgae. The barbarian camp is a huge 8-mile line and Caesar puts his 6 veteran legions in battle order. A marsh separates the enemy and battle began when the cavalry met. It was hard fought but the Romans prevailed. It seems that the idea of the enemy was to draw the Romans away while other barbarians would attack from the rear. Caesar decided to move and did however manage to kill many of the "fleeing" enemy. He moves his army and conquers the town of Noviodunum and tribe of the Suessiones.

Then Caesar learned that the Nervii along with the tribes of the Atrebates and the Veromandui, as well as the Aduatuci, were waiting on the Sambre River to meet him for battle. The Nervii charged the Romans before they were deployed. Caesar acted quickly, and his presence in the ranks was required to encourage the troops and they responded well. Titus Labienus captured the enemy camp and could see how the Roman camp now was in danger. He sends his men down to help and the Romans got a second wind. The battle ended in annihilation for the Nervii who lost all but 3 of their leaders. Only 500 men were left of fighting quality and they surrendered to Caesar. He was careful to leave them in peace in their own land, perhaps wanting to leave them as an example to all others in the area. The tribe of the Aduatuci was approaching but when they heard of the battle they fled. They massed all their people on an easily defensible citadel and the Romans soon arrived. They encircled them with a 15-mile wall 12 feet high. Then the Romans built a huge siege engine and moved towards the town. The town offered terms but Caesar demanded unconditional surrender, a dedito in Latin. The town complied and threw all their weapons over the wall. But they planned to trick the Romans by offering peace and attacking them when they lowered their guard. During the night they attacked. Since all the weapons were all outside the walls, the Romans got the upper hand quickly. They killed 4000 men. The rest locked themselves into the town. The next day Caesar broke in and was able to capture 53,000 people and sold them into slavery.

At this time Publius Crassus returns with his legion and informs Caesar that he has received the submision of tribal states in west Normandy and Brittany. The legions had now conquered all but the far north of Gaul and southern Aquitaine and Gascony on the west coast. Caesar alos got promises of cooperation from German tribes in the east. He commanded that hostages be given to him next summer (56 BC) since he was heading back south for the winter. Caesar sends his accounts of the first 2 years in Gaul back to Rome and was given the then unheard of 15-day thanksgiving celebration, a 'Supplicatio'. Usually only five days were permitted for this and even Pompey got only 10 in 63 BC when he basically conquered the whole eastern Mediterranean seaboard. And guess who came up with this idea? It was Pompey and Cicero. Caesar spread his legions in the areas where he had fought the wars for their winter quarters. He headed back towards Italy and then toward his third province of Illyricum. That province was along the east coast of the Adriatic Sea. Caesar also sent Servius Galba and the 12th legion to secure the Alpine passes. 10,000 Seduni and other Alpine tribesmen are killed when they attack the Romans there unsuccessfully.

In Rome in 57 BC problems were brewing. Caesar's allies in Rome were dividing interests. Publius Clodius Pulcher's term as tribune is over and Pompey and Crassus are on shaky ground. Pompey and Clodius now hate each other from squabbling about minute details on the eastern settlements. Time was ripe for Cicero's return from exile. The main problem was that there was a serious grain shortage. The last 3 harvests were poor. People flocked to Rome for free food rather than grow it for themselves and now there was none left. The law of Clodius from last year gave rise to the hiring of gangs to fight for the two main factions. Pompey used the 2 new Tribunes of 57 to counter Clodius. One of them was Titius Annius Milo. Consul Cornelius Lentulus Spinther wanted Cicero to return immediately but a measure to recall him was defeated on January 1. The other consul was Cicero's old enemy Caecilius Metellus Nepos and he promised not to prevent Cicero's return. Basically Pompey needed him back. Caesar does not seem to have opposed this. The booty from Caesar's last 2 years of campaigning made him rich enough to play the part Crassus had played for him years before. In June the Senate passed a decree that allowed Cicero to legally return and Pompey organized his whole arrival campaign making his return a symbolic event for the return to normality in the government. To deal with the grain shortage the senate granted Pompey a special commission: the "Cura Annonae" or "Management of the grain supply" and included a five-year term of Imperium. Cicero returned to Italy at Brundisium on August 5, the day after legislation allowing his return was passed in the senate. He arrived in Rome on September 4 after being met by appreciating legates in every town on the way. Cicero was eternally grateful, ironically since it was Pompey who didn't prevent his exile. But on September 5 Clodius tried to blame Cicero for the food shortage and instigated the people of Rome. Now another problem was forming for when Clodius in 58 BC sent Porcius Cato to "annex" Cyprus it caused an insurrection in Egypt who ruled Cyprus. This forced Egyptian King Ptolemy XII to come to Rome to get military and financial aid staying with Pompey at his villa. Pompey wanted him back on Egypt's throne. A profiting deal for Egyptian grain could be made. Crassus opposed this not wanting Pompey to be too successful. Crassus encouraged Clodius to use his thugs against Pompey, and now he and Crassus disagreed so much that Pompey began to fear for his life. Luckily for him he wasn't seen as the real problem. Cicero began to blame Caesar for all these problems. Due to the riots of this year some elections were delayed. One was the election where Caesar's friend Publius Vatinius was up for the Aedileship of 56. Cicero began to criticize the "lex Vatinia" vigorously.

The next year Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus and Lucius Marcius Philippus are the consuls. On January 20, 56 BC Vatinius lost his election. This left Clodius as Caesar's only support but that seemed to be ending. Clodius, Cicero, Cato, and Bibulus began to attack Caesar's command. On February 2 Milo went to trial in revenge for his failed prosecution of Clodius the year before. He was acquitted in 5 days. At the trial Clodius used his thugs to "boo" Pompey while he was speaking for Milo, but to cheer Crassus when he spoke for Milo as well. It seemed that Cicero was trying to play the three Triumvirs off against each other. Only Crassus and Caesar had no suspicion between them. About now the next year's consular candidates were appearing. One was Cato's son-in-law Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus who hated Caesar with a passion. He promised to relieve him of his command if elected Consul for 55 BC. Cicero planned to debate overturning Caesar's Campainian agrarian law on May 15. The triumvirates had to meet before it was too late. Caesar had spent the spring in Illyricum.

In second week of April Pompey was in northern Italy taking care of the grain commission and Crassus went to Ravenna to meet Caesar alone. However Caesar called them both to Luca, a Roman colony north of Pisa where Caesar discreetly traveled too. 120 Senators came as well as the governors of Sardinia and Spain. The meeting ended with the agreement that Pompey and Crassus would hold both the consulships of 55 BC and would get oversees commands or Proconsulships, like Caesar occupied now. Pompey got Spain for 5 years and Crassus 5 years in Syria. The big issue was that Caesar's command was to be extended. Also at the meeting was Cicero's brother Quintus. He was Pompey's legate on the grain commission. He informed his brother of the meeting and the May 15 debate never happened. Cicero didn't even dare to vote for a replacement for Caesar's command in June. So now things were safe. Crassus even tamed Clodius. But the Optimates and Cato didn't want this at all. Pompey and Crassus missed the deadline for entering the election. They used the tribunes to delay the elections until January 55 when a helpful Interrex was in power. This also let Crassus' son come back to Rome with 1000 men to "help out" after the 56 BC campaigning season.

After Luca in May 56 BC word came to Caesar from Publius Crassus that the tribes on the northern coast of the Bay of Biscay have captured Roman military tribunes who were in search of corn for the army of Crassus in west Normandy. The leading tribe was the Veneti, a sea power. They sailed to Britain even. Caesar commanded a fleet to be built on the Loire River. The Veneti tell Crassus to return the Veneti hostages for the tribunes. Caesar arrives to command the army. The Veneti don't think the Romans will fight when they have so little food. Caesar's fleet was also not as good as the Veneti's and the coast was not very suitable for war. Caesar sends Titius Labienus to watch the Belgae and the Germans on the Rhine. He sends Crassus and 12 cohorts to finally conquer Aquitaine and Gascony. Caesar was unable to take the Veneti forts because they were on high cliffs. He waits for his fleet under the command of Decimus Junius Brutus, a man who Caesar would deal with years later. Facing him now are 220 Veneti ships. The Romans use large hooks on poles to destroy the ship's sails and rigging. The Veneti don't have rowers like Caesar does either. When many Veneti ships are captured others try to flee, but the wind died and they couldn't escape. When the barbarian fleet was destroyed the rest on land surrendered. Caesar had the leaders executed and sold the rest as slaves. Meanwhile in Aquitainia Crassus had done his job well. He managed to surround a Gallic army of 50,000 and killed about 38,000 of them. Almost the entire south west of Gaul now surrendered. Caesar than moved his army towards the forests of the Morini and the Menapii in the north. They were going to migrate. When the Romans arrived the barbarians ambushed them. After the Romans beat them off Caesar cut down a large part of the forest, but soon storms set in and the Romans had to leave. There was probably major flooding in their area now and soon the Romans set up winter camp among the Aulerci and Lexovii between the Seine and Loire rivers to keep an eye on Brittany. It was here that Caesar most likely decided to go to Britain because the Celtic tribes there had helped the Gauls here.

Caesar begins his commentary for 55 BC with word that German tribes are crossing the lower Rhine to find new land to grow food. They were the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri and were at war constantly with the Suevi German tribe. Caesar describes the Germans as meat hunting warlike nomads. Caesar also says they refuse to import wine. In January or February (the winter was probably warmer than normal) these two tribes captured the land of the Menapii tribe of Gauls and stayed there for the rest of the winter. Caesar is of course back in Cisalpine Gaul. Since he fears that the Gauls will be stirred by these problems he sets out to the army as he says in his book "earlier in the year than he (Caesar) was accustomed to do". So it was probably around late April when he arrived on the scene. He gathers the chiefs of Gaul and does not tell them of the Germans. That would only lead to problems for the Romans. When Caesar was only about 60 miles from the Germans with his army, German ambassadors showed up with the following message:

"That the Germans neither make war upon the Roman people first, nor do they decline, if they are provoked, to engage with them in arms; for that this was the custom of the Germans handed down to them from their forefathers, to resist whatsoever people make war upon them and not to avert it by entreaty; this, however, they confessed, that they had come hither reluctantly, having been expelled from their country. If the Romans were disposed to accept their friendship, they might be serviceable allies to them; and let them either assign them lands, or permit them to retain those which they had acquired by their arms; that they are inferior to the Suevi alone, to whom not even the immortal gods can show themselves equal; that there was none at all besides on earth whom they could not conquer."

In late June Caesar decided to cross the Rhine. This had never happened before. The reasons Caesar gave for the crossing are distinctly Roman. They were both political and self-serving. His main reason was to show the Germans who raided Gaul, that the Romans could do the same to Germania. Another was the excuse that the cavalry of the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri had escaped back to Germany. This made any river crossing legal under Roman law. Another was that the German tribe, the Umbii, were being threatened by the Suevi, the most powerful of the western German tribes. But perhaps the greatest reason was simply the glory that this act would bring. Remember, it had never been done before.

"To cross by ships he neither deemed to be sufficiently safe, nor considered consistent with his own dignity or that of the Roman people". And with that construction began on a great bridge where the city of Mainz is today. He had to build a bridge greater than 100 meters long! Using of course his army, which had trained craftsmen and engineers, it took only 10 days to build the bridge. Since Caesar had given such an excellent description of this construction, a modern reconstruction attempt was made in Britain. It was proved that the Romans could easily have built 10 meters a day using temporary pontoon bridges and large pile drivers. By probably July 5, 55 BC, he crossed the Rhine river. He left very strong guards on both ends. Of course the Germans knew what was happening and many tribes surrendered to Caesar immediately. The Sigambri tribe was nearest and had allied with the Usipetes and the Tenchtheri. So these guys were the first target. They had fled the area and Caesar spent a few days burning what they had left and taking their corn. Then he went to the territory of the Umbii to honor his agreement with them. The Suevi in the mean time had also evacuated their homes. Caesar learned that they had retreated deep into Germany with their army to wait for the Romans. Since Caesar had now freed Umbii territory and other Germans would certainly leave them alone. This was enough even for him. To fight the Germans deep in their own territory, which was quite unknown to the Roman military, was extremely dangerous. He didn't need to do it. Other things needed attention. So

"having spent altogether eighteen days beyond the Rhine, and thinking he had advanced far enough to serve both honor and interest, he returned into Gaul, and cut down the bridge".

Caesar then headed for the Calais region to prepare for his trip to Britain. Roman knowledge of Britain was almost none. Only merchants had ever gone there and they only knew the coastal area. Caesar wanted to go there to learn about them himself. The size of the island wasn't even known. The merchants were of no help. But Caesar did record good estimations of the size of Britannia and Hibernia (Ireland). So he sends for Caius Volusenus to take a warship to explore the island for suitable harbors and such. Meanwhile the merchants had gone to Britain and informed the locals of the Roman's intentions. Ambassadors from Britain's tribes immediately came to see Caesar. They promised loyalty and hostages. He sends them back to Britain with Commius, a Gallic collaborator. His mission is to inform all the tribes of Britain "to embrace the protection of the Roman people". No explaination needed to what that meant. Five days after he left, Caius Volusenus returned from his exploration and reported to Caesar. Caesar had called for all the ships from Normandy and Brittany to be gathered in the Strait of Dover. Many of the ships used were built and captured the year before. In a couple of weeks or so, 80 transport ships were gathered. This was enough for 2 legions, at least 9600 men. 18 ships were 8 miles away and couldn't arrive due to the winds. Caesar sends his lieutenants Titurius Sabinus and Aurunculeius Cotta to take care of the Menapii and those areas of the Morini from which ambassadors had not come to him. He left Publius Sulpicius Rufus to guard the Gallic harbor, Portus Itius, today's Boulogne. He sends his remaining cavalry to join the ships 8 miles away at Portus Ulterior, today's Ambleteuse. So at about the third watch of the night of August 26, 55 BC (Julian), Caesar and 2 legions, one of which was the 10th, sailed for Britain.

At the 4th hour of August 27, 55 BC, just after sunrise, Caesar and his ships were off the white cliffs of Dover. The Britons, well informed of his intentions, were atop the cliffs waiting to fight him. Since the cliffs rise so high and close to the sea, this was the ancient equivalent of landing at Omaha beach. However Caesar knew better and decided to just wait for all his ships to arrive which took 5 hours. During that time he told his men to follow his orders without question since all of them were at maximum risk. This whole enterprise was, and has been called, the ancient equivalent of the moon landing. It was part of a war of course but had no military value in any sense of the term of material gain. But Caesar like any good Roman was a glory seeker. This was like Alexander the Great marching to India and fighting. Had nothing to do with the Persian war, but it is something you can say you did to impress your countrymen. So Caesar decided to use the info that Caius Volusenus had given him. The fleet sailed northeast for 7 miles and landed at a flat and open shore. This can only be the beach at Deal. However the deep keel of Roman ships kept them some ways from the shore. The Britons of course followed them and were soon on the beach. The Roman soldiers found it difficult to jump out with heavy armor and weapons into the deep water. The Britons were using chariots and cavalry in the surf. It seems that the even the great Roman legions at this point were scared. Caesar acted quickly. He pulls the warships away from the transports and closes in on the Britons from the side so the archers and other siege engines can have an open line of fire. This seems to have freaked out the Britons. The still frightened Romans then got inspiration. The man who beard the eagle of the 10th Legion said the following:

"Leap, fellow soldiers, unless you wish to betray your eagle to the enemy. I, for my part, will perform my duty to the commonwealth and my general."