Preservation of the Revelation Received by the Prophets Muhammad and
Jesus
By:
Dr. Ahmad Shafaat
(First published in the Journal of the Muslim Research Institute,
July-August 2001, Vol. 5, No. 2)
Part 1: REVELATION
RECEIVED BY THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD
We need to discuss the question of the
preservation of the teachings and practice of the Prophet Muhammad
for each of the two sources – Qur'an and Hadith.
The Qur’an
The question here is whether
the Qur'anic text as we have it today is the same as the one handed
down by the Holy Prophet himself. Before
considering this question, it is necessary to clear one
technicality. In Arabic, as in Hebrew and some other languages, the
vowels were not written. They were used for teaching purposes or for
the benefit of non-Arabs. Even now the writings penned by Arabs and
meant for Arabs omit vowels, except when used for teaching purposes.
The construction of the sentence very often
determines what vowels are to be used, but sometimes uncertainty can
arise. In the case of the Qur'an, which was from the beginning
constantly memorized and recited by the Muslims such uncertainties
are relatively few.
In addition to the vowels, dots used to
distinguish some letters such as “b”, “t”, and “th” or “r” and “z”,
or “b” and “n” etc, which without the dots can have the same linear
form were also sometimes omitted. There were also somewhat different
ways of putting dots that distinguish some letters such as "f" from
some others such as "q". Some say that the whole system of dots was
developed later. A further source of confusion is that dots were at
first used for vowels. In any case, it should be evident that for
the question of the authenticity of the Qur'anic text variations
arising from the absence of vowels or somewhat different ways of
putting vowels or differentiating letters with identical shapes must
be set aside. They reflect the
peculiarities of the system of writing rather than any alterations
in the received text. In any language one often finds that a
word can have more than one meaning, making the meaning of the text
uncertain. In a document written in Arabic script a word to which
vowels or dots can be supplied in more than one way is like a word
that can have more than one meaning.
The Arabic script also lacked punctuation marks,
for which comments similar to those made for dots and vowel marks
apply.
One other fact that should be kept in mind while
examining the transmission of the Qur'an is that the Arab culture of
the time had no tradition of producing books of the size of the
Qur'an and then making copies for wide distribution. The Qur'an in
fact is the earliest “book” in Arabic language that has come down to
us and is certainly the earliest to be copied and distributed far
and wide. Pre-Qur'anic Arabic documents that have survived are short
inscriptions. If this is not kept in mind then modern readers of the
Muslim traditions about the collection of the Qur'an cannot properly
evaluate them.
Now from the emphasis that the Qur'an puts on the
pen and on writing business contracts -- clearly far less important
than the revelation -- from its description of itself as a book like
the Torah and the Gospel, and from the uniform testimony of all
traditions it is established that the Qur'an was written during the
time of the Prophet. Also, there is no direct textual evidence of
any alterations in the text of the Qur'an, whether in its contents
or their order, ignoring the vowel marks, the dots, and some
extremely minor scribal errors that can be identified with a
straightforward way (see the Appendices). Finally, it is agreed by
all reports that the present text was in use when a large number of
the companions of the Prophet were alive. Given these facts even
discussing the question of the authenticity of the Qur'anic text
seems unnecessary. If today the question of the authenticity of the
Qur'anic text is alive in some discussions it is primarily because
of three reasons:
First, polemic
between Muslims and Christians creates a strong need among some
Christians to counter the Muslim allegation of tahrif in the
Bible by a similar allegation of tahrif in the Qur'an.
Second, the need
on the part of some scholars, usually incompetent or mediocre or
mischievous, to come up with some sensational or dramatic theses for
attracting attention or serving a particular agenda. Such is
probably the case, for example, with Wansbrough who has suggested
that the Qur'an was compiled even later than the traditions, and was
used to authenticate later beliefs and laws embodied in the
traditions. In other words, during the early Arab expansion beyond
Arabia the conquerors were not Muslims. They gradually developed
beliefs and laws, embodied them in traditions, and later produced
the Qur'an, almost 200 years after Muhammad, to put a stamp of
authority on those traditions. Similar is the case with the theory
put forward by P. Crone and M. Cook in their book Hagarism:
The Making of the Islamic World.
Third, some
Muslim traditions allege that the Qur'an contained this or that
statement or that this or that verse was read in this or that way at
some, usually, unspecified time.
There is no way to satisfy doubts raised by needs
of polemic except perhaps to ask Christians the following question:
Suppose that today we had only one gospel that according to all
reports was used by the eyewitness disciples of Jesus and by all
subsequent generations of Christians down to the present day.
Suppose further that all extant manuscripts of this gospel were in
complete agreement as to its text except for extremely unimportant
scribal errors. Will Christians entertain any doubts about the
authenticity of the text of such a gospel? Almost certainly not! Yet
in polemic against Islam and Muslims they raise doubts about the
authenticity of the Qur'anic text in the face of exactly the same
type of evidence.
There is also not much one can do to cure the
attention seekers from coming up with sensational but highly suspect
theories. Modern Christian scholarship is full of such theories:
e.g., the theory that Jesus did not exist or the theory that Jesus
was originally the name of the mushroom used in drug cults and was
later turned into a human being born and active in Galilee, or that
he was a militant zealot engaged in armed struggle for the
liberation of Palestine from the Roman yoke. All such theories can
be discredited easily by noting that they focus on a very selected
part of the evidence and make no attempt to provide a coherent and
reasonable explanation of the evidence as a whole. For the
specific theory of Wansbrough, he himself has to describe it as
"conjectural", "provisional" and "tentative" in order to appear to
be adhering to some semblance of academic standards. That the theory
does not deserve even these descriptions is shown by the fact that
at least four manuscripts of the Qur'an, including some fragments
discovered recently fragments have been dated to the first and early
second Islamic century (see Appendix V)..
As for the doubts raised by Muslim traditions we
can examine them critically in order to see whether they really call
the authenticity of the Qur'anic text into question. Such an
examination has been done by Muslim and non-Muslim scholars who have
concluded in favor of the authenticity of the Qur'anic text.
Muslim traditions raise two types of doubts: a)
after the departure of the Prophet from this world the material in
the text was changed; b) the order of the material was changed or it
was established for the first time after the Prophet’s departure
from this world.
This second type of traditions say that the
Prophet left the Qur'an scattered in pieces and it was put as a
complete book after his life.
Examples of traditions of the first type, those
that raise doubts about the integrity of the material in the
Qur'anic text are:
1) Some Shi‘ah traditions, documented no earlier than the fourth
century of the Islamic calendar, say that in some verses of the
Qur’an ‘Ali was appointed as the successor of the Prophet but these
verses were changed or removed. Likewise there are reports that the
Qur'an once had material disparaging to the rule of the Umayyads,
‘Ali’s rival, and that it was removed from the Qur'an by Hajjaj bin
Yusuf, the governor of Iraq under the Umayyad rule.
2) Some Sunni traditions, documented in the second century, say that
there was a verse in the Qur'an that prescribed stoning for
adultery.
3) We also encounter allegations to the effect that codex of such
and such a companion of the Prophet read such and such a verse of
the Qur'an in this or that way.
For some people the very existence of such
traditions is enough to cast doubt on the authenticity of the
Qur'anic text. This is because they guide themselves with the
saying, "where there is smoke, there must be fire." This is clearly
irresponsible. For, it is evident that there are lots of traditions
or ideas that have no basis at all in fact. There may not be smoke
without fire (although even that can be arranged!) but there are
certainly traditions without truth.
The need for responsible historical research
before drawing conclusions from reports can be illustrated by some
examples. In Christianity we find in the second to fifth century C.E.
the following traditions or views:
·
Pilate was a Christian saint.
·
A Roman soldier Pantera was an
ancestor of Jesus. This Pantera is the same man who according to the
Jewish tradition was an illegitimate father of Jesus.
·
Cerinthus, a gnostic heretic, wrote
the Gospel of John.
·
Before he started his ministry,
Jesus went to Tibet and other lands in the east spending 17 years
there and learning the ways of various yogis and mahatamas.
It would be irresponsible to accept these or any
of the other innumerable traditions or views found in the past or
present Christian and other writings simply because they are, or
claimed to be, found in some documents.
Consequently, responsible historical research
must first assess the above-mentioned traditions about the text of
the Qur'an as to their veracity. This was attempted long time ago by
Muslim muhaddithun (Hadith scholars) who developed some
objective criteria to distinguish sound (sahih) traditions from
unsound ones. We can either accept their conclusions or carry their
critical and scientific work further. Many Muslims have accepted
their conclusions and explained the various traditions about
variants in the Qur'an as follows: Almost all traditions considered
sound by the Hadith scholars are historical. Therefore all variants
in the Qur'an stipulated in them are actual. However, they do not
represent later changes. Rather, they came from the Prophet himself
and are therefore part of revelation. Some of these variants were
abrogated by revelation, others were included in seven different
revealed modes of reading the Qur'an. Still others were meant to
continue in practice but not part of the recited Qur'an. This view
has an internal consistency and coherence within a set of
assumptions, but is very unsatisfactory. The alternative to this
view is a complete revision of the work of the classical Hadith
scholars One cannot simply pick and choose traditions to affirm the
faithful transmission of the Qur'an, or, as the Christian
missionaries do, build an edifice of accusations against the early
transmitters of the Qur'an. We need to develop further objective and
rational methods to reconstruct history behind the various
traditions. If we do that, the case for the faithful preservation of
the Qur'anic revelation can be made even more convincingly than if
we simply depend on the work of the classical muhaddithun, as I
attempt to show now.
A
general but conclusive argument against allegations of alteration
To beign with we have the solid fact before us
that despite considerable diversity and divisions among Muslims we
find the same text of the Qur'an from country to country and century
to century, with some very minor exceptions mentioned earlier. Those
who insinuate alterations must explain when and how did this text
come into existence. If we ignore certain very late traditions about
Hajjaj bin Yusuf discussed further below, the most cynical statement
that can be made on the basis of the existing evidence is that the
text was finalized by ‘Uthman, the third Muslim leader succeeding
the Holy Prophet, and that some changes were made by ‘Uthman or
people before him. But a little reflection shows this to be next to
impossible. Let us recall some established historical facts: The
Prophet had dozens of followers who were with him for about 20
years, hundreds of followers who were with him for about 10 years,
thousands who were with him for about one year, and tens of
thousands who saw and heard him at least once. After him four of
those who were with him for about twenty years successively became
leaders of the Muslim world, which during their leadership, lasting
for about thirty lunar years, expanded to include at least Egypt,
Syria, Iraq, and Iran. The most important basis for governing this
vast region was the Qur'an and the Sunnah (normative practice of the
Prophet). The companions of the Prophet taught people the Qur'an, if
only for the daily prayers; some of these people then taught others
and so on. Finally it is uncontested that written texts of the
Qur'an existed before ‘Uthman during the time of the Prophet and the
first two of his successors and that there existed people, as they
still do, who memorized the Qur'an in part or in whole.
Now suppose that there were at any time any
variations in the Qur'an other than those caused by scribal errors
or failure of memory or due to some minor differences in script.
That is, suppose that some individuals or groups deliberately held
onto a text of the Qur’an that they knew was different from
the one followed by others and that was closer to the original text
than the one we possess. How could it then happen that from century
to century and from country to country we find the same text of the
Qur'an? It is said that `Uthman ordered people to burn all the texts
of the Qur’an which were different from the text that he compiled.
But is it conceivable that people will submit to this order even if
they thought `Uthman's text was not the authentic text? Westerners
may have the tendency to think that Muslim rulers must have always
been tyrant dictators who could force the people to do anything.
This is certainly not true of the early leaders of Muslims. But even
if we assume that people lived in terror of their leaders, it was
logistically impossible for `Uthman to control every home. People
could easily hide their various copies of the Qur’an and secretly
pass them on to their descendants and through them on to us. It is
self-evident and is also required by the teachings of the Qur'an
that every Muslim should do his utmost to prevent the alteration or
suppression of the word of God. For in passages where there are no
variations alleged the Qur'an had condemned earlier nations for
altering or fabricating the "divine" scripture. Thus in one such
passage we read:
And woe unto those who write the scripture with
their own hands and then say, "This is from God," that they may in
this way obtain a small gain. Woe unto them for what their hands
have written and woe unto them for what they gain thereby! (2:79).
The following passage condemns even hiding any
part of the revelation, much less altering it:
[God says:] Those who hide what We have revealed
of the clear matters and of the guidance, after We have made it
clear for the people, are accursed of God and accursed of those who
(are entitled to) curse - except such of them as repent and amend
and make manifest the truth. These it is to whom I turn in
forgiveness. And I am the forgiving, the merciful (2:159-160).
Many early Muslims are expected to live up to the
obligation implied in these verses even if it meant loosing their
lives. For, there has never been a shortage of Muslims who have been
willing to give their lives for the sake of Islam. Hence any attempt
by `Uthman or anyone else would have been met with the stiffest
resistance on the part of many Muslims, resulting in their putting
forward an alternative text of the Qur'an. But we have no direct
evidence of the existence of such an alternative text. Only later
insinuations of the type we have mentioned earlier.
And what about the text that `Uthman promulgated?
How did he arrive at that text? On the basis of what text did the
first two leaders, Abu Bakr and `Umar governed the Muslim lands
before him? What text people had been using in their daily prayers
in Madinah, the city of the Prophet, which consisted almost entirely
of Muslims, most having seen and heard the Prophet? What text was
used throughout the land during sermons before the Friday
congregational prayers? How could `Uthman change the text that had
been used for twelve years before him in the presence of hundreds of
companions of the Prophet who could easily detect any change to the
original text and were obligated by religious principles to prevent
alterations in the word of God? And why at all would he want to
change it, considering that the extant text says nothing in his
favor? It is also important to keep in mind that the vast Muslim
world was not homogeneous. There was as much diversity of opinion as
one expects from any group of people. There were even conflicts,
some of them armed. `Uthman himself had opposition from some groups,
one of which actually martyred him. Had the text he promulgated been
less than 100% reliable his opponents would have made it an issue
and accused him of changing the word of God. But the fact is that
these opponents accused him of many things but we do not have any
early reliable tradition, in which they accuse him of changing the
word of God. There is also no evidence that anyone resisted ‘Uthman
and was executed for doing so or otherwise persecuted. In fact,
several traditions suggest an atmosphere of complete freedom within
which promulgation of the so-called ‘Uthmanic text took place (see
further below).
The above arguments counter the traditions
alleging some alterations in the Qur'anic material but they also
show that there were no alterations in its order in so far as the
Prophet himself indicated that order. For if for any set of
verses the Prophet had indicated the order he wanted the verses to
be recited, any departure from that order will have resulted in
divisions among Muslims leading to different Qur'ans today. If for
some parts of the Qur'an the Prophet did not specify any order, then
of course some subsequent Muslim leader could have used his own
judgment to establish an order between those parts and the community
could have accepted it. In this case, however, we cannot
describe the new order as an alteration. What the
authenticity of the Qur'an means is that the existing text of the
Qur'an contains exactly what the Prophet intended it to contain and
in exactly the order he intended, there being a possibility that in
the present text some parts are found in an order that was left open
by the Prophet himself.
The following considerations suggest that the
existing order of the material in the Qur'an within surahs was
fixed by the Prophet and probably also the order between surahs:
n
The Qur'an shows that the Prophet
was moved, like the Biblical prophets, by a sense of tremendous
urgency and seriousness of the message he was conveying through the
Qur'an. It is nothing short of a message to all humanity on which
their very salvation depends. More than other prophets, however, the
Prophet also taught that he was the last or the seal of the
prophets, that is, his message was not only for the whole humanity
but also for all future generations of men till the judgment day.
Under such a perspective, the Prophet is expected to take steps to
ensure the integrity of the Qur'an and this includes attention to
the order of the material.
n
The Qur'an and the traditions refer
to surahs or chapters of the Qur'an. This means that the book was
divided into chapters called surahs in the time of the Prophet. It
seems difficult to imagine that no attention was paid during the
time of the Prophet to the order within surahs. The order within a
chapter of a book is an important part of the interpretation of the
book. It is extremely unlikely that the Prophet would have the
surahs written down and then leaves them as scattered pieces without
any clear order in the verses.
n
Since the revelation of the Qur'an
continued throughout the Prophet’s ministry it is clear that the
Qur'an was incomplete for most of that period. But it is clear from
the uniform testimony of the Qur'an and the traditions that the
Qur'an was recited during prayers in the Prophet’s time. This must
have created a need from the very beginning to establish an order in
the various pieces, at least within surahs.
n
At the most we can admit the
possibility that the revelation that came down towards the very end
of the Prophet’s life when he fell sick might not have been put in
its place by him in a deliberate way. In fact the verse: “This day I
have completed my religion for you …” (5:3) which from its very
contents seems to be chronologically the last verse or one of the
last verses is found in the middle of the regulations about food.
This can be explained as follows: originally 5:3 was on two sheets.
It started on one sheet and continued on the second. Then the verse
about the completion of revelation was written down on a separate
sheet and this sheet put between the two sheets containing 5:3,
where it has stayed to this day. This is a strong argument that the
existing Qur'an is a copy of a single master copy prepared in the
time of the Prophet and that the order of the Qur'an, at least
within surahs, was established in the lifetime of the Prophet and no
changes were made in it subsequently. For, otherwise, the verse
about the completion of revelation would not be found in its present
place. The companions, if they established the order of the Qur'an
after the Prophet, are expected to find a more “suitable” place for
this verse. They could have, for example, put the verse at the end
of surah 5 or any other surah, rather than in the middle of a verse.
Once we see that the order within surahs was
established during the lifetime of the Prophet, we must conclude
that the Qur'an was being collected in his lifetime with his full
knowledge. Now there are two possibilities: 1) Surahs were collected
in separate “folders” with no particular order between them; 2) they
were put together as a single collection of written material. In
this second case, they must have some order in the manuscript(s)
being collected, it being possible that different manuscripts being
prepared by different companions had different order between surahs.
In the first case, too, the question of order between surahs is
expected to have arisen. The Prophet could have answered this
question either by instructing a definite order or by suggesting an
order without insisting on it or by leaving the order entirely to
the people. All these possibilities arise because the order between
surahs is not important for the interpretation of the Qur'an, since
neither its verses nor its surahs are in any chronological or
thematic order. The situation corresponds well to the following
hadith:
Yazid al-Farisi said: I heard Ibn Abbas say: I
asked ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan: What moved you to put the (surah) al-Bara'ah
which belongs to the m`in (surahs containing one hundred
verses) and the (surah) al-Anfal which belongs to the mathani
(surahs) in the category of al-sab‘ al-tiwal (the first seven
long surahs or chapters of the Qur'an), and you did not write "In
the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful" between them?
‘Uthman replied: When the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to the
Prophet, he called someone to write them down for him and said to
him: Put this verse in the surah in which such and such has been
mentioned; and when one or two verses were revealed, he used to say
similarly (regarding them). (Surah) al-Anfal is the first surah that
was revealed at Madinah, and (Surah) al-Bara'ah was revealed last in
the Qur'an, and its contents were similar to those of al-Anfal. I,
therefore, thought that it was a part of al-Anfal. Hence I put them
in the category of al-sab‘ al-tiwal, and I did not write "In
the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful" between them. (Abu
Da`ud)
In this tradition, it is clearly assumed that the
order within surahs was fixed by the Prophet while the order between
the surahs appears to be somewhat open. This tradition, however, is
not historical as far as the part where ‘Uthman is given the liberty
to fix the order of the surahs is concerned. Such order, if not
already fixed by the Prophet himself must have been fixed soon after
his death. For considerations of plausibility and a number of
reports show that complete copies of the Qur'an must have been
available more than a decade before ‘Uthman and these complete
copies must have had some order between surahs. ‘Uthman would have
no reason to change that order.
“Collection”
after the death of the Prophet
Some traditions suggest that the Qur'an was
“collected” after the departure of the Holy Prophet from this world.
This is well within the realm of possibilities if the term
“collected” is understood to mean that the different surahs of the
Qur'an, instead of being written as separate units were put together
in a single manuscript in the form of a book, although even then the
suggestion is very unlikely since the Qur'an is generally described
as a book rather than as a collection of several separate units like
the collection of poems by a poet. But in some traditions
“collection” brings to mind a Qur'an whose pieces are scattered all
over the places and are being collected from place and place. These
traditions are certainly the result of some gross misunderstanding
as we now show in some detail.
The most creditable of these traditions is the
following:
Zayd bin Thabit said: Abu Bakr al-Siddiq
sent for me when the people (involved in the battle) of Yamamah had
been killed. 'Umar bin al-Khattab was with him. Abu Bakr then said,
‘Umar has come to me and said: "Casualties were heavy among the
qurra' (readers) of the Qur'an on the day of the battle of
Yamamah, and I am afraid that more heavy casualties may take place
among the qurra' on other battlefields, whereby a large part of the
Qur'an may be lost. Therefore I suggest, you order that the Qur'an
be collected." I said to 'Umar, "How can you do something which
God's Messenger did not do?" 'Umar said, "By God, that is a good
project.” ‘Umar kept on urging me to accept his proposal till God
opened my heart to it and I saw in it what 'Umar saw." Then Abu Bakr
said (to me). “You are a wise young man and we do not have any
suspicion about you, and you used to write the revelation for God’s
Messenger. So you should trace the Qur'an and collect it." By God,
if they had ordered me to shift one of the mountains, it would not
have been heavier for me than his ordering me to collect the Qur'an.
Then I said to Abu Bakr, "How will you do something which God's
Messenger did not do?" Abu Bakr replied, "By God, it is a good
project." Abu Bakr kept on urging me to accept his idea until God
opened my heart to what he had opened the hearts of Abu Bakr and 'Umar.
So I started looking for the Qur'an and collecting it from (what was
written on) palmed stalks, thin white stones and also from the men
who knew it by heart, till I found the last verse of Surah al-Tawbah
with Abu Khuzaymah al-Ansari, and I did not find it with anybody
other than him. The verse is: 'Verily there has come unto you a
Messenger from amongst yourselves. It grieves him that you should
receive any injury or difficulty (till the end of Bara`ah
(9.128-129). Then the complete manuscripts (suhuf) of
the Qur'an remained with Abu Bakr till he died, then with 'Umar till
the end of his life, and then with Hafsah, the daughter of 'Umar
(Bukhari).
If this tradition is taken as it is, then it can
be used to argue that whatever Zayd bin Thabit did under orders from
Abu Bakr was completely faithful to what the Prophet passed on to
his followers. Notice how both companions are unwilling to depart
from the practice of the Prophet. With this attitude it is almost
certain that they would have compiled the Qur'an as faithfully as
they could, in terms of both the contents and the order. And they
could certainly be 100% faithful if they wanted to, as they
evidently did, since the Qur'an was both in written form and in
people’s memory.
But there are strong indications that this
tradition is not historical. One immediate point to be noted is that
in the story the motivation of the collection of the Qur'anic
fragments was provided by the death of many qurra` in a
battle. This means that prior to the battle of Yamamah the
preservation of the Qur'an was primarily done orally by the qurra`.
This raises the question, Did the qurra` know only parts of
the Qur'an or whole of it? If they knew only parts of it, then they
were no guarantee to the preservation of the Qur'an, so why the
attention to the collection of the Qur'an was given only after the
death of the qurra` in the battle of Yamamah, which according
to some reports took place about a year after the death of the
Prophet? If the qurra` knew by heart the whole Qur'an, then
the Qur'an must have been already collected. One may say that this
collection was in memory but not in the form of a written book. But
then why Zayd makes such a big issue of collecting the written
pieces of the Qur'an, saying that he would have found it easier to
shift one of the mountains than to put the fragments of the Qur'an
together? It was not such a revolutionary departure from the
practice of the Prophet if one simply collected together as a single
book the chapters of the Qur'an that the Prophet had dictated and
that many Muslims had memorized in their entirety. The hesitation on
the part of Abu Bakr and Zayd to “collect” the Qur'an might make
some sense if we assume that in the time of the Prophet the surahs
were left as separate units without any fixed order between them
while what ‘Umar was proposing was to put them together in a single
manuscript which necessarily required ordering them. But this is not
the picture that the above tradition is assuming. The last part of
the tradition which talks about two verses being not found with any
one but Khuzaymah al-Ansari pictures the Qur'an as scattered all
over the places.
Moreover, if the collection of the Qur'an in the
sense of picking up its pieces from different places was done by
Zayd under Abu Bakr, then we should find some mention of this
important event in early books of history. Ibn Ishaq mentions the
selection of Abu Bakr as the leader of the Muslims after the
Prophet’s death and refers to traditions as late as the last year of
‘Umar’s caliphate. He therefore could also have mentioned how the
Qur’an was collected in the days of Abu Bakr. But he does not. He
does however assume that almost immediately after the death of the
Prophet there was a book that was the source of guidance for
Muslims: The Prophet had not yet been buried, when ‘Umar got up in a
gathering that had just selected Abu Bakr and declared: “God has
left his book with you, that by which he guided his messenger, and
if you hold fast to that God will guide you as he guided him.” Ibn
Ishaq also mentions the tradition according to which Abu Bakr
referred to a verse in the Qur'an (3:138) to make the Muslims accept
the Prophet’s death. Is it believable that this book that was to
guide the Muslims was left in such a sorry state that about a year
after the death of the founder of Islam Zayd had to search for its
verses from place to place?
If omission from Ibn Ishaq of any mention of the
tradition of collection under Abu Bakr can be explained by the fact
that Ibn Ishaq is primarily a biography of the Prophet, the same
cannot be said of its omission from Tabaqat’ of Ibn Sa‘d
(d: 230 H). Ibn Sa‘d devotes considerable space to the time of
Abu Bakr but does not mention the collection of the Qur'an. under
him. He also has a section on Khuzaymah bin Thabit but collection of
the Qur'an by Zayd and his finding a verse with Khuzaymah is nowhere
mentioned. The tradition of collection under Abu Bakr is also absent
from Muwatta and Muslim.
It is also strange that the task of collecting
the Qur'an was entrusted only to one companion: Zayd, who was in his
mid twenties in the time of Abu Bakr. There is some logic in
involving a young person in the project that needed good memory, but
it is inexplicable why the senior companions were completely
excluded. Moreover, Zayd did not belong to the Quraysh in
whose tongue, according to other traditions, the Qur’an was
revealed and written.
But what really discredits the story is that we
have other stories contradicting almost every detail in it. Notice
that in the above tradition we are told that Zayd when asked to
collect the fragmentary Qur'an says to ‘Umar, "How will you do
something which God's Messenger did not do?" ‘Umar replies, "By God,
it is a good project." This clearly implies that the collection of
the Qur'an was not done in the time of the Prophet. Yet in
another tradition we are told:
It is related from Anas: The Qur'an was
collected in the lifetime of the Prophet by four (men), all of
whom were from the Ansar: Ubayy, Muadh bin Jabal, Abu Zayd and Zayd
bin Thabit." I asked Anas, "Who is Abu Zayd?" He said, "One of my
uncles" (Bukhari).
According to another tradition:
It is related from Anas that when the Prophet
died, none had collected the Qur'an but four persons: Abu al-Darda`,
Mu'adh bin Jabal, Zayd bin Thabit and Abu Zayd. We were the
inheritors (of Abu Zayd) as he had no offspring (Bukhari).
Notice that Zayd bin Thabit is among those who
collected the Qur'an during the lifetime of the Prophet, the same
Zayd who is said in the other tradition to be searching for the
pieces of the Qur'an after the battle of Yamamah at the instruction
of Abu Bakr.
The tradition about collection during the time of
the Prophet is actually more reliable than the tradition of
collection under Abu Bakr. This is because of the following reasons:
1) The tradition about collection in the time of
Abu Bakr is found neither in Muwatta nor Muslim. But the two
traditions about collection during the time of the Prophet are found
in Muslim, though not in Muwatta.
2) The traditions about collection during the
time of the Prophet can be taken back to a companion by the
principle of two witnesses whereas the tradition about collection in
the time of Abu Bakr cannot be taken back by the same criterion
earlier than a successor.
Bukhari repeats the tradition about collection in
the time of Abu Bakr at least five times with the following chains
of transmission (isnads):
Zayd bin Thabit al-Ansari
‘Ubayd bin al-Sabbaq,
Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri
Shu ‘ayb -- Abu al-Yaman
Ibrahim ibn Sa‘d -- Musa bin Isma il
-- Muhammad ibn ‘Ubayd
Allah Abu Thabit
Yunus -- al-Layth -- Yahya bin Bukayr
Ibrahim ibn Sa‘d -- Musa bin Isma‘il
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid -- al-Layth
A look at the above isnad tree (which shows the
earlier authority on the left) shows that we can confidently take
the tradition back to Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (died 125), since several
transmitters cite him. But we cannot take the tradition past al-Zuhri.
He is the only one who cites al-Sabbaq and al-Sabbaq is the only one
who relates from Zayd and Zayd is the only one telling the story. In
contrast, the tradition of collection during the lifetime of the
Prophet is quoted from the original narrator by several
transmitters. It has the following isnads:
Anas bin Malik
Qatadah
Sh u‘bah
Yahya -- Muhammad bin Bashshar
Thabit al-Bunani
‘Abd Allah bin al-Mushni -- Mu‘alla
bin Asad
Thumamah
‘Abd Allah bin al-Mushni -- Mu ‘alla bin Asad
Hammam
There are thus four successors who relate the
tradition from the original narrator, Anas who, being a companion,
could well have known whether the Qur'an was collected during the
time of the Prophet. Clearly then the tradition of collection during
the time of the Prophet is more reliable than the tradition of
collection during the time of Abu Bakr.
It may also be noted that the collection of the
Qur'an during the time of the Prophet himself is supported by other
traditions. Thus in his last sermon the Prophet told the Muslims: “I
have left you something, which if you hold steadfast to, you will
never fall into error: the Book of God. (Muslim; Muwatta and Ibn
Ishaq also contain a similar tradition). Here it is likely that
“book” does not refer to written fragments of the Qur'an scattered
all over the places. In another tradition we read “Yazid bin ‘Abd
Allah said that ‘Abd Allah ibn ‘Amr asked the Prophet: In how many
days should I complete the recitation of the whole Qur'an, O
Messenger of God? He replied: In one month. He said: I am capable of
completing it in a shorter period. He kept on repeating these words
and lessening the period until he said: Complete its recitation in
seven days. He again said: I am capable of completing it in a period
less than this. The Prophet said: He who finishes the recitation of
the Qur'an in less than three days does not understand it. (Abu
Da`ud). This hadith, versions of which are found also in Bukhari and
Muslim, suggests that the complete Qur'an was recited during the
time of the Prophet, which implies that somewhere the whole Qur'an
was being collected as it was being revealed.
There are still more difficulties concerning the
tradition of collection during the time of Abu Bakr. In that
tradition we are told that there was a Qur'anic passage that Zayd
could not find anywhere except with Khuzaymah al-Ansari. The passage
is identified as 9:128-129. But look at the following tradition.
Zayd bin Thabit narrated: When we collected the
fragmentary manuscripts of the Qur'an into copies, I missed one of
the verses of Surah al-Ahzab which I used to hear God's Messenger
reading. Finally I did not find it with anybody except Khuzaymah al-Ansari,
whose witness was considered by God’s Messenger equal to the witness
of two men. (And that verse was:) 'Among the believers are men who
have been true to their covenant with God.'
Here the missing passage is not 9:128-129 but
33:23!!!
The above difficulties are raised when we limit
ourselves to the relatively early and reliable source – Bukhari. If
we also consider traditions from other sources such as those used in
Kitab al-Masahif written by Abu Bakr ‘Abd Allah ibn abi Da`ud
(230-316 H) the confusion multiplies. Thus some traditions tell not
that Zayd bin Thabit collected the Qur'an at the order of Abu Bakr
but rather that Abu Bakr himself did the collection while Zayd bin
Thabit only had a second look over it:
It is related from Kharijah that Abu Bakr al-Siddiq
had collected the Qur'an on papers himself and had requested Zayd bin
Thabit to have a second reading on it. Zayd refused but he agreed on
the insistence of ‘Umar. The scriptures thus compiled remained with
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq till his death, the possession passing to ‘Umar
till he died, and again to Hafsah (wife of the Prophet and daughter
of ‘Umar). ‘Uthman, when he became khalifah, sent for the scriptures
but Hafsah first refused to part with them but later agreed on the
promise that they shall be returned to her. Thus ‘Uthman returned
the scriptures after he got them copied. These remained with Hafsah
until Marwan, in his time, got them burnt.
The following tradition gives us yet another
account of the way the Qur'an was collected under the leadership of
Abu Bakr:
‘Urwa ibn Zubayr related that when a large number
of qurra` were murdered, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq feared the loss
of the Qur'an. He thus asked ‘Umar and Zayd bin Thabit to sit at the
door of the mosque and collect the Qur'anic verses from anybody who
could produce two witnesses each in support of their being genuine
Qur'anic verses.
Still other traditions say that the collection
was not even done by Abu Bakr but by ‘Umar and completed by ‘Uthman:
It is related from Yahya bin ‘Abd al-Rahman bin
Hatab that ‘Umar determined to collect the Qur'an, ordered all those
who kept with them the Qur'anic verses which were earlier collected
by them from the Messenger, to produce such verses before him based
on evidence of two witnesses each. Thus he gathered all those pieces
of papers, stones, wooden plates and date-palm leaves on which the
Qur'an was written. ‘Umar left the task of compilation of the Qur'an
incomplete when he died and it was thus taken over by ‘Uthman who
followed the routine of his predecessor. During this period
Khuzaymah bin Thabit challenged ‘Uthman that he had missed two
verses and these were ultimately taken over.
In addition to the difference in the khalifah
under whom the collection of the Qur'an was done and in the whole
procedure of that collection, another noteworthy difference is that
while in other versions the missing Qur'anic passage is remembered
by Zayd bin Thabit and then found at his initiative with
Khuzaymah in the above version it is Khuzaymah himself who
challenges ‘Uthman.
We conclude from the above evidence that the
tradition that the Qur'an was collected for the first time under Abu
Bakr is highly doubtful. One striking feature of this and other
traditions considered above is that they stress the role of the
Ansar. In one tradition all the Quraysh are excluded and the task of
collecting the Qur'an is given to a young Ansari in his mid
twenties. Parts of the Qur'an are found only with Khuzaymah al-Ansari.
Four people who collected the Qur'an in the time of the Prophet are
pointedly identified as belonging to the Ansar. It thus seems that
one impulse behind the development of these traditions is to praise
the Ansar. Another circumstance that explains the development of
traditions about the collection of the Qur'an after the
Prophet’s departure from this world is that during that period for
most people the Qur'an was indeed a book whose pieces were found
scattered and they had to collect them. During the last part of the
Prophet’s life and the subsequent period there were an ever
increasing number of tribes, villages, cities and countries entering
the fold of Islam. Most people did not have easy access to complete
manuscripts of the Qur'an or to people who knew the whole Qur'an by
heart. They learned whatever the available teachers could teach
them. Both the teachers and their students probably wrote, when they
could write, the parts of the Qur'an that they memorized to
safeguard it. To learn more they had to look for other resource
people. This process was the “collection” of the Qur'an. We have an
incident of this in Bukhari:
Yusuf bin Mahk related: While I was with ‘Aishah,
the mother of the believers, a person from Iraq came and asked,
"What type of burial shroud is the best?" 'Aishah said, "May God be
merciful to you! What does it matter?" He said, "O mother of the
believers! Show me your mushaf (copy of the Qur'an)," She
said, "Why?" He said, "In order to compile the Qur'an according to
it, for people recite it without any (fixed) order." …Then 'Aishah
took out the copy of the Qur'an for the man and dictated to him the
verses of the surahs (Bukhari).
According to this tradition a man is traveling
from Iraq to find out the proper order in the surahs or their
verses. Even if the tradition is unauthentic, the situation it
presumes is highly plausible: people did not often find in their
neighborhood complete copies of the Qur'an or complete copies with
the surahs arranged in the correct order. Consequently, when some
people started to tell stories about the collection of the Qur'an
they found it easy to assume that the Qur'an was at one point
scattered all over the places.
Copies made under
‘Uthman
Another tradition about the early history of the
text of the Qur'an is as follows:
Musa narrated: Ibrahim (bin Sa‘d) narrated
to us: Ibn Shihab (al-Zuhri) narrated that Anas ibn Malik narrated
to him: Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman came to ‘Uthman at the time when the
people of Sham were fighting for Arminyah and Adhrabijan along with
the people of Iraq. Hudhayfah was afraid of their differences in the
recitation of the Qur'an, so he said to 'Uthman, "O chief of the
believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book as the
Jews and the Christians did." So 'Uthman sent a message to Hafsah
saying, "Send us the written sheets (suhuf) of the
Qur'an so that we make copies of them (nansakhu ha fi al-masahif)
and then return them to you." Hafsah sent them to 'Uthman. 'Uthman
then ordered Zayd bin Thabit, 'Abd Allah bin al-Zubayr, Sa‘id bin
al-‘As and 'Abd al-Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham and they made copies
of them.
'Uthman said to the three Qurayshi men, "In case
you and Zayd bin Thabit disagree on any point in the Qur'an, then
write it in the dialect of the Quraysh; for it was revealed in their
tongue." They did so, and when they had copied suhuf
in masahif 'Uthman returned the suhuf to
Hafsah. 'Uthman sent to every region one of the copies they had
made, and ordered that every other written piece (sahifah)
or a whole manuscript (mushaf) of the Qur'an be burnt. Ibn Shihab
said: Kharijah bin Zayd bin Thabit informed me: He said, "A verse
from surah al-Ahzab was missed by me when we copied the Qur'an and I
used to hear God’s Messenger recite it. So we searched for it and
found it with Khuzaymah bin Thabit al-Ansari. (That verse was):
'Among the believers are men who have been true in their covenant
with God.' (33.23).
Like the tradition about collection under Abu
Bakr this tradition also does not reach to a companion by the
testimony of two independent witnesses. Only Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri
relates it from Anas bin Malik and then only Anas narrates it on his
own authority. Furthermore, no mention of any events reported in
this tradition is found in the Tabaqat’ of Ibn Sa‘d.
Tarikh of Tabari, gives detailed account of the
battle for Armenia and Azerbaijan but does not mention the above
incident. Muwatta and Muslim also contain no mention of this report.
From these facts it is clear that whatever else ‘Uthman might or
might not have done he did not change the Qur'an. For that would
have meant at the very least destruction of a great many earlier
written fragments of the Qur'an. Such massive destruction of
material must have been known to tens of thousands, if not resisted
by them. We expect it to be reported widely. Yet most early books
are silent about it, the very same books who are not at all
reluctant to report allegations that the Qur'an was once different
in some ways from its extant text.
Again, like the tradition about collection under
Abu Bakr, we have also other completely different version of the
above tradition:
It is related from Mas‘ab ibn Sa‘d that
‘Uthman felt concerned about the people expressing doubts on the
Qur'anic text only 13 years after the death of the Messenger. He thus
ordered them to bring to him all that they possessed regarding the
Qur'an. They brought pieces of papers and hides on which the Qur'an
was written. After the lot was collected. ‘Uthman sat inside
inviting men individually, each stating on oath that the material
produced by him was the one collected by him from the Messenger
directly. After the completion of this task, he inquired as to who
was the best scribe amongst them and who was the person who knew the
Arabic language best? They named Zayd bin Thabit and Sa‘id bin
al-‘As respectively. ‘Uthman, thus, ordered Sa‘id to dictate and
Zayd to write it down. This completed version of the Qur'an was
circulated amongst the people (Ibn Abi Da`ud, Kitab al-Masahif).
It is characteristic of the traditions about `Uthman
that they do not seem to show awareness of the traditions about
collection under Abu Bakr even though Zayd bin Thabit is often a
common character in both types of traditions. Thus in the tradition
from Ibn abi Da`ud the Qur'an is still pictured as scattered in
pieces. Even in the earlier more reliable tradition from Bukhari,
this picture creeps up in the part where we are told that some
Qur'anic passage was missing from the Qur'an and was found with
Khuzaymah. This implies that the Qur'an was still incomplete even
though Zayd bin Thabit had already collected the Qur'an more than a
decade earlier and it was this very Qur'an that was in the custody
of Hafsah and that ‘Uthman had borrowed. Also note that ‘Uthman
tells the four men what to do in case of disagreement between Zayd
and others. Here, again, there is no awareness that Zayd is the one
who collected the first manuscript in the time of Abu Bakr.
It should be clear from the above considerations
that the tradition about ‘Uthman cannot be accepted as it is? So
what history, if any, lies behind it?
Note first that we can disregard the part stating
that Zayd had to find a passage with Khuzaymah. There are two
reasons for this:
1) The part about the missing verses is given
as a separate tradition quoted separately by Ibn Shihab, not on the
authority of Anas but on that of Kharijah the son of Zayd.
2) Bukhari gives two other versions of the
tradition and these versions do not talk of any missing verses:
It is related from al-Zuhri that Anas bin Malik
narrated: 'Uthman ordered Zayd bin Thabit, Sa‘id bin al-‘As, 'Abd
Allah bin al-Zubayr and 'Abd al-Rahman bin al-Harith bin Hisham to
make copies of the (Qur'an) (yansakhu ha fi al-masahif)
and said to them. "In case you and Zayd bin Thabit disagree
regarding any dialectic Arabic utterance of the Qur'an, then write it
in the dialect of Quraysh, for the Qur'an was revealed in this
dialect." So they did it.
It is related from Ibn Shihab (al-Zuhri) who
relates it from Anas bin Malik: ‘Uthman called Zayd bin Thabit, ‘Abd
Allah bin al-Zubayr, Sa‘id bin al-‘As and 'Abd al-Rahman bin
al-Harith bin Hisham, and then they made copies of (the Qur'an). 'Uthman
said to the three Qurayshi men. "If you and Zayd differ on any point
of the Qur'an, then write it in the language of Quraysh, as the
Qur'an
was revealed in their language." So they did so.
Once the part about the missing verses is
disregarded, the tradition is no longer about the collection of the
Qur'an. It is about writing it in the particular dialect of the
Quraysh and making copies of it. Even if we accept this part of the
tradition as historical, we do not learn from this tradition what
exactly writing the Qur'an in the dialect of the Quraysh involved.
But as noted earlier, whatever else it might have been it did not
amount to changing the Qur'an.
If we accept the tradition as historical, a
reasonable explanation consistent with the conclusion demanded by
other considerations can be easily found. Keep in mind that in
different parts of Arabia people pronounced and wrote synonymous
words somewhat differently. Also, the Qur'an was probably the first
book ever written and promulgated in the Arabic language, so that at
the time of the Prophet and immediately after him the Arab society
was not equipped to produce and promulgate documents of the size of
the Qur'an. Finally, keep in mind that the Arabic script at the time
was very primitve, having considerable ambiguity. In view of this,
it is highly likely that there probably was some confusion in the
mind of those who had not spent enough time with the Prophet or had
not otherwise carefully leant the Qur'an. So it would be natural for
the leader of the Muslim world to try to remove and prevent this
confusion by making the written text correspond to the received
recitation more unambiguously. Norice that when Hudhayfah makes his
suggestion to ‘Uthman, he talks about the differences in recitation
but when ‘Uthman gives his instructions to the four scribes he talks
about writing the Qur'an in the dialect of the Quraysh and seems not
to admit any differences in recitation among the scribes who had all
learnt the Qur'an in the time of the Prophet. The question seems to
be how best to rewrite the Qur'an so that it corresponds more
unambiguously to the received reciation than the suhuf in the
possession of Hafsah. Regarding this best way of rewriting the
Qur'an differences could arise among the scribes. ‘Uthman’s
instruction was that the scribes were to first look for consensus
about how to spell the words more clearly and, if that was not
possible, the judgment of the three Qurayshi men were to prevail
since the Qur'an was revealed in their language. This instruction
clearly implies that ‘Uthman’s main concern was to be faithful to
the orginal revelation. In short, what was produced under ‘Uthman
was simply a text more helpful to people in reciting the Qur'an
correctly, a process that continued after ‘Uthman through the
introduction of various diacritical symbols.
But the historical truth may be even simpler than
that: ‘Uthman had several bound copies of the Qur'an made from the
manuscript prepared by the Prophet and left by him with his wife
Hafsah. These copies were sent to various parts of the Muslim world
to fulfill the ever present need for complete copies of the Qur'an
to which we have already drawn attention. It is doubtful that there
was any extensive destruction of Qur'anic manuscripts at the command
of ‘Uthman, for the story is absent from early books of history and
the command to burn is absent from two of the three versions in
Bukhari (see above for quotation). People in different Muslim lands
probably did not have to be told to destroy any defective copies.
Most copies already agreed with the copies sent by ‘Uthman. Others
gradually fell out of use or were destroyed voluntarily. Only very
few and very unimportant scribal errors either committed prior to
‘Uthman’s action or afterwards remained unresolved (see Appendix II:
The nature of provable variants of the Qur'an).
That any destruction of the Qur'anic manuscripts
under ‘Uthman was volantary is shown by the fact that there are no
traditions suggesting that anyone was executed or otherwise punished
for not accepting the text distributed by ‘Uthman. We are told of
some companions complaining about ‘Uthman’s alleged order to destroy
copies that did not conform to the one he promulgated but none is
shown as really resisting, much less being punished for doing so. We
have to either assume that the whole Muslim world voluntarily
accepted the text or imagine that it consisted entirely of people
who never resisted their rulers even for defending the word of God.
Nothing in the history of Islam justifies our admitting this latter
possibility.
Complaints about “‘Uthman’s
text”
One of the traditions said to voice complaint
about “‘Uthman’s text” is the following from Bukhari:
Sa‘id bin Jubayr from Ibn ‘Abbas: ‘Umar said,
“Our best reciter (of the Qur'an) is Ubayy and our best judge is
'Ali. Yet we disregard some views of Ubayy because Ubayy says: 'I do
not leave anything that I have heard from God's Messenger’ while God
says: Whatever of the revelation do We abrogate or cause to be
forgotten We bring a better one or similar to it." (2.106).”
But this tradition does not connect Ubayy’s
comment with Uthman’s action. It concerns the question of whether an
abrogated part of the Qur'an should be recited as part of the Qur'an
or not. Ubayy is of the opinion that it should be recited while
‘Umar is supposedly of the opposite view. There is evidence that the
view attributed here to Ubayy was shared by Uthman and hence Ubayy
would have no reason to object to “‘Uthman’s text”, at least not on
the grounds suggested in the above tradition. For Ibn al-Zubayr, who
was one of the four men who prepared copies of the Qur'an under
‘Uthman, asked ‘Uthman (during the project of making copies) why not
leave verses that have been abrogated. ‘Uthman disagreed and said
that everything that was in the Qur'an whether abrogated or not
should be left in its place. Here is the exact quotation from
Bukhari:
Habib narrates from Ibn abi Mulaykah who said:
Ibn al-Zubayr narrated: I said to 'Uthman bin 'Affan regarding the
verse, "Those of you who die and leave wives ..." (2.240)
"This verse was abrogated by an other verse. So why should you write
it (in the Qur'an)? (Or, he said: why should you leave it (in the
Qur'an))?" 'Uthman said. "O son of my brother! I will not shift
anything of it from its place."
This tradition shows that whatever else may be
the reason behind Ubayy’s comment, it was not an objection to
“‘Uthman’s text”. Incidently, if some traditions insinuate that
‘Uthman made some changes in the Qur'an, the above tradition shows
that he was completely faithful to the orginal text.
Strangely, one of the companions who complains
about ‘Uthman’s text is ‘Uthman himself!!! Thus we read in one
tradition from a relatively late collection:
When `Uthman received the completed mushaf,
he noticed certain linguistic irregularities. He remarked: 'Had he
who dictated it been of (the tribe of) Hudhayl and had the scribe
been of (the tribe of) Thaqif, this would never had happened.' (Ibn
abi Da`ud, "Kitab al-Masahif")
Here remnants of the petty tribalism that Islam
cured to a large degree is raising its head again. ‘Uthman himself
is made to say that `Abd Allah bin Mas‘ud who was from Hudhayl (see
his genealogy in Tabaqat of Ibn Sa ‘d) would have done a
better job in compiling the Qur'an. This tradition assumes that the
compilation under ‘Uthman was done by one man (Sa‘id bin al-‘As)
dictating and another (Zayd) writing. However, in earlier traditions
four persons are collectively given the responsibility of copying
the Qur'an who were to participate in all decisions.
Another tradition where a companion is supposed
to complain about “‘Uthman’s text” is the following where ‘Abd Allah
bin Mas‘ud is made to say:
'Am I to be prevented from copying the masahif
and the job is to be given to a man who was an infidel in his
father's reins when I first became a Muslim?' (Ibn
Abi Da'ud, Kitab a-Masahif)
Here the man who got the job of copying the
masahif is Zayd as we learn from other similar words attributed
to Ibn Mas‘ud:
'The Prophet taught me to recite seventy surahs
which I had mastered before Zayd had even become a Muslim.'
'I recited from the very mouth of the Prophet
some seventy surahs while Zayd still had his ringlets and was
playing with his companions.'
'Lay up your Qur'an's! How can you order me to
recite the reading of Zayd, when I recited from the very mouth of
the Prophet some seventy surahs?" 'Am I to abandon what I acquired
from the very lips of the Prophet?'
Petty rivalry and jealousy is again apparent. The
description of “‘Uthman’s text” as the reading of Zayd is against
all traditions about the compilation or copying of that text. In
some traditions, Zayd is simply a scribe while in other traditions
he is to be overruled by other three men in case of a difference.
In one of the interesting traditions quoted above
Ibn Mas‘ud advises people to lay up their copies of the Qur'an. The
question is why did they not listen to Ibn Mas‘ud and preserved
their Qur'ans for the future generations? ‘Uthman could not have
searched every home and confiscated the copies that people might
have hidden.
Not only there is no tradition which suggests
that people conformed to ‘Uthman’s text” because of fear but also
there are traditions showing that ‘Uthman even allowed people to
have variant readings and even himself used readings different from
“his own” text:
`Uthman sent for `Ali for information on the
grievances of the rebels. Among these was resentment at his having
'expunged the masahif'. `Uthman replied, 'The Qur'an came
from God. I prohibited the variant readings since I feared
dissension. But now, read it as you please.' (Ibn abi
Da'ud, Kitab al-Masahif)
After ‘Uthman permitted the variant readings why
did people not produce copies of the Qur'an reflecting their
particular variants and then passed those to future generations?
Here is another tradition that shatters the
hypothesis of fear:
I went to Abu Musa's house and saw there ‘Abd
Allah and Hudhayfah. I sat with them. They had a mushaf that
`Uthman had sent ordering them to make their Qur'an conform with it.
Abu Musa declared that anything in his mushaf and lacking in
`Uthman's was not to be omitted. Anything in `Uthman's and lacking
in his own was to be added. Hudhayfah asked, 'What is the point of
all our work? Nobody in this region will give up the reading of this
shaykh, meaning `Abd Allah bin Mas‘ud, and nobody of Yemeni origin
will give up the reading of Abu Musa.' (Ibn abi Da`ud, Kitab
al-Masahi)
You would recall that according to the tradition
in Bukhari Hudhayfah is the man who advised ‘Uthman to save the
Muslim nation by preparing an authentic text of the Qur'an. Now this
same Hudhayfah is saying that the whole effort was futile. People
did not and would not give up the readings of the shaykhs they were
following. So where is that fear that is supposed to have made
people burn the Qur'an copies that did not conform to “‘Uthman’s
text”? And if people were free to use the allegedly different
readings why did they not preserve their copies, as Ibn Mas‘ud is
supposed to have advised them? Thus it seems that ‘Uthman’s text has
won under complete freedom because of its total faithfulness to the
Qur'an as left by the Holy Prophet.
Does the personal rivalry manifest in some of the
above traditions go back to Ibn Mas‘ud himself? It may be that Ibn
Mas‘ud or his close friends felt that he should have been among the
people given the job of copying the Qur'an. The job was given to men
in their thirties and early forties. This is the age when mental
faculties are still sharp and yet a person is old enough to have
learned enough. Ibn Mas‘ud who died at the age of 70 or more in 32 H
was already well above sixty when ‘Uthman did his reported
compilation. But whatever the reason that Ibn Mas‘ud was not
involved in the project reportedly undertaken by ‘Uthman and
whatever Ibn Mas‘ud felt about it, it is unlikely that this
translated into the sort of attacks against Zayd that we read in the
above traditions. This is because:
1)
Ibn Sa‘d, a source much earlier than Ibn abi Da`ud records
the words of Ibn Mas`ud only to the extent that he learnt seventy
surahs from the lips of the Prophet. A comparison with Zayd is not
mentioned in the section on Ibn Mas‘ud.
2)
According to the earlier tradition about the copying of the
Qur'an under ‘Uthman one of the four members of the team entrusted
with the job was ‘Abd Allah bin al-Zubayr. Now according to
traditions recorded by Ibn Sa‘d there were very good relationship
between Ibn Mas‘ud and Ibn al-Zubayr till the very end. Thus when
Ibn Mas‘ud fell sick he wrote: “This is the will of Ibn Mas‘ud. If
he dies during his sickness then Zubayr bin al-‘Awwam and his son
‘Abd Allah bin al-Zubayr are authorized to manage his affairs and
they need not feel any constraint in their decisions. The marriage
of his daughters will not take place without their information…”
With a man enjoying such trust of Ibn Mas‘ud in the team that copied
the Qur'an it is unlikely that he would have any mistrust of what
came out of the project.
3)
The character of Ibn Mas‘ud in earlier traditions in Ibn Sa‘d
is that of a very mild, moderate, and pious person. We do not expect
from him such unreasonale attack on Zayd. The attack is unreasonable
because Zayd was not the only one who prepared the “Uthman’s text”.
Ibn Mas‘ud’s own trusted ‘Abd Allah bin al-Zubayr was as much or
more responsible. Also, Zayd is said to be a scribe appointed by the
Prophet, so we do not expect Ibn Mas‘ud to question his competence.
4)
Muslim records the following tradition:
‘Abd Allah (bin Mas‘ud) said: He who conceals
anything he shall have to bring that which he had concealed on the
judgment day, and then said: After whose mode of recitation you
command me to recite? I in fact recited before God's Messenger more
than seventy chapters of the Qur'an and the companions of God's
Messenger know it that I have better understanding of the Book of
God (than they do), and if I were to know that someone had better
understanding than I, I would have gone to him. Shaqiq said: I sat
in the company of the companions of Muhammad but I did not hear
anyone having rejected that (i.e., his recitation) or finding fault
with it.”
Although this tradition is often understood in
the light of the tradition in Tabari according to which ‘Abd Allah
told people to hide their Qur'an, this is not stated here. Ibn
Mas‘ud’s words -- “he who conceals anything he shall have to bring
that which he had concealed on the judgment day” -- could even be
viewed as a criticism of hiding, especially because hiding what God
revealed is against the Qur'an (2:159-160) and therefore Ibn Mas‘ud,
being so knowledgeable about the Qur'an is not expected to recommend
it. Notice also that in this tradition there is no attack on Zayd or
anyone else. The words, “If I were to know that someone had better
understanding than I, I would have gone to him” show that Ibn Mas‘ud
had no personal grudge with any other companion.
5)
In view of all the talk of Ibn Mas‘ud being critical of some
other text or recitation and not being willing to destroy his copy
etc, one would think that he really had some weighty differences
with the rest of the companions who approved “ ‘Uthman’s text”. But
when we investigate the nature of his alleged differences with other
companions, we find nothing substantial that can be convincingly
attributed to him (see Appendix IV).
From the traditions we have reviewed so far, one
gets the strong impression that the history of the text of the
Qur'an and the history of the traditions about that text are two
parallel and unrelated streams. The text shows a remarkable
stability and unifomity from place to place and from century to
century. The traditions about the text are full of all sorts of
weaknesses and contradictions. They seem to disregard the solid fact
of a constant text across time. This is because they are not at all
concerned about history. Rather, many of them, especially those in
late books, have the character of gossip meant to provide release to
baser human tendencies of petty personal or tribal rivalries,
political differences, and sectarian conflicts. This, however,
should not lead one to conclude that the Muslim world was gripped by
such baser motives. The constructive work that Islam achieved
through the centuries is testimony to the existence of a parallel
spirit, probably exhibited in early centuries by a majority of
Muslims. The traditions discussed above seem to be the work of a
small but very vocal minority. The constructive and positive spirit
showed by the relatively silent majority are also reflected in some
traditions, e.g. the set of traditions about the seven ahruf
(see Appendix III). Their authenticity is not above doubt, but their
message is clearly positive and constructive: People should rise
above, and show tolerance to, whatever minor variants remain
unresolved. Apparently, this spirit won, since long time ago the
variants in the Qur'an ceased to be an issue for Muslims, so much so
that a vast majority of them is not even aware of them today.
Alleged verses about ‘Ali or the Umayyads
The traditions alleging that some lost parts of
the Qur’an or some present verses in their earlier form appointed
`Ali as the immediate successor of the Prophet are obviously
sectarian and come under immediate suspicion of fabrication. This
suspicion becomes a firm conclusion if we remember that `Ali did
become the leader of the Muslims after the martyrdom of `Uthman. So
why did he not promulgate the correct text during his leadership if
the text promulgated by `Uthman was not the original? As noted
earlier it is the obligation of every Muslim to prevent alteration
or suppression of the word of God and to correct them if they occur.
`Ali, in the view of both Shi‘as and Sunnis was not the sort of
Muslim who would fail in this obligation either during the
leadership of his predecessor or during his own leadership.
We may also dismiss reports that Hajjaj omitted
many verses from the Qur'an, which dealt disparagingly with the rule
of the Ummayds, or added to it some which were not there originally,
or changed about a dozen of them. He is said to have prepared a new
codex for distribution in Egypt, Syria, Makkah, Madinah, Basrah and
Kufah. An implication of these reports is that the present Qur'an is
the one prepared by al-Hajjaj, who was able to destroy everyone of
the previous copies. It is difficult to imagine how anyone could
accomplish such a feat, especially someone like Hajjaj who was only
a governor in one of the provinces in the Muslim world.
These reports about Hajjaj also found their way
in Christian writings in the East. Thus in a letter purported to be
written by Leo III to ‘Umar bin ‘Abd al-‘Aziz we read: “we know that
it was 'Umar, Abu Turab and Salman the Persian, who composed [Qur'an},
even though the rumor has got around among you that God sent it down
from the heavens… As for your (book), you have already given us
examples of such falsifications, and one knows, among others, of a
certain Hajjaj, named by you as the governer of Persia, who had men
gather up your ancient books, which he replaced by others composed
by himself, according to his taste, and which he propagated
everywhere in your nation, because it was easier by far to undertake
such a task among the people speaking a single language. From this
destruction, nevertheless, there escaped a few works of Abu Turab,
for Hajjaj could not make them disappear completely.”
Given the whole Christian history of forging
material in various ways including interpolating documents (such as
The Ascension of Isaiah, Josephus` Jewish Wars, and
many many others) and of attributing late documents to earlier
writers (such as the attribution of many late gospels to the
disciples of Jesus) the authenticity of the letter of Leo III can
hardly be taken for granted. In any case the views stated here are
only a confused version of some Muslim traditions and these Muslim
traditions are discredited by their sectarian tone and by the
impossibility that a provincial governor could replace an older
version of the Qur'an throughout the Muslim world by his own,
without leaving any trace of that older version.
We can illustrate by a modern example how
fictitious claims of the existence of some Qur'anic passages could
be fabricated and then perpetuated.
In the later part of the 19th century
Nicolas Notovitch, a Russian Jew who converted to the Greek
Orthodoxy created a furor by the publication of his book, The
Unknown Life of Jesus Christ. He claimed that he saw in the
Tibetan lamasery (i.e., monastery) of Hemis a two-volume manuscript
on the life of Jesus. He arranged to have the manuscript read aloud
and translated for him. In this way he learnt that Jesus had been in
Tibet and lived with the monks there for years. Subsequent search
for the manuscript by responsible scholars such as Max Muller, the
editor of Sacred Books of the East, and J. Archibald Douglas
and others (see Edgar J. Goodspeed, Famous “Biblical” Hoaxes)
produced neither the manuscript nor any evidence for the story that
Notovitch told of his visit to the lamasery of Hemis. At that point
Notovitch began to revise his story. But neither the findings of the
researchers nor the revision of the story by Notovitch himself put
an end to the story that he started. More than hundred years have
passed since he first wrote his book, and yet claims are still made
that Jesus visited Tibet and other lands in the East where he spent
years. Books such as Elizabeth Claire Prophet, The Lost Years of
Jesus: Documentary Evidence of Jesus’ 17-Year Journey to the East,
Holger Kersten, Jesus Lived in India, 1986 are still being
written, read, and believed.
The missing parts of the Qur'an claimed by the
Shi‘ah are no more real than the manuscript about Jesus in the
Tibetan lamasery. It should, however, be noted that even among the
Shi‘ah it is only a small minority that believes in these missing
surahs or passages. The majority view among the Shi‘ah is expressed
in the following traditions:
Shaykh Abu Ja‘far says: Our belief is that the
Qur'an, which God revealed to his Prophet Muhammad is (the same as)
the one between the two binders. And it is that which is in the
hands of the people, and is not larger than that.
And he who asserts that it is greater in extent
than this (the present text) is a liar.
Shi‘ah scholars throughout the centuries have
affirmed this position. Thus Imam Khu’i, (probably a marja‘
taqlid for more Shi‘ah Muslims than any other scholar) states
the majority view among Shi‘ah authorities as follows:
It is a known fact among the Muslims that the
Qur’an has not been tampered with in any way and that all of
the Qur’an we have with us today is the same that was
revealed to the Prophet. This has been specified by many
authorities. Among them is the bona fide, Muhammad ibn Babwih, the
chief of all the muhaddithin. He maintains that the view that
the Qur’an has not been tampered with is among the beliefs of the
Imamiyyah. The great Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Tusi
also holds this view. He has explicitly mentioned it in the
beginning of his exegesis al-Tibyan. He has also quoted the
exactly similar opinion of his learned teacher and profound scholar
Sayyid Murtada. His arguments on it are the best of all.
Similarly, the celebrated exegete of the Qur’an Tabrasi
has also expressed this same view in the preface of his exegesis
Majmu‘ah al-Bayan. Another person who has asserted this view
is the leading jurist Shaykh Ja‘far in his book Kashf al-Ghita;
he has also claimed a consensus on it. Allamah Shahshahani in
his book al-‘Urwah al-Wuthqah is an exponent of this
view also. He has attributed it to many mujtahidin as well.
Among them is the famous muhaddith Muhsin Qasani (who has
mentioned this view in his two books al-Wafi and ‘Ilm al-Yaqin)
and the learned Muhammad Jawad al-Balaghi who has referred to
this view in the preface of his exegesis
Ala’ al-Rahman. (Khu`i,
al-Bayan).
The alleged verse about stoning for adultery
The allegation that a verse prescribing stoning
as the punishment of adultery by a married man or woman is also
without sound foundation. It is easily seen to be the product of
fiqhi controversies in the first century. Let us look briefly at
Bukhari's two relevant traditions. The shorter version reads on the
authority of Ibn Abbas:
`Umar said: I am afraid that
after a long time has passed, people may say, "We do not find
rajam (stoning) mentioned in the book of God," and consequently
they may go astray by neglecting an obligation that God has
revealed. Lo! I confirm that the penalty of rajam is
applicable to him who commits adultery and he is already married and
the crime is established by witnesses, pregnancy or confession (Bukhari,
Book: "The punishment of those who..." Chapter: "To confess
committing adultery").
The second version is also related on the
authority of the same Ibn ‘Abbas but with different chain of
transmitters. In the following quotation I have highlighted the
parts that are not found in the first version.
God sent Muhammad with the
truth and revealed the holy book to him, and a part of what God
revealed was the verse of rajam and we did recite it,
understood it, and memorized it. God's messenger stoned (for
adultery) and so did we after him.
I am afraid that after a long time has passed, somebody will say,
"By God we do not find the verse of rajam in the book of
God," and thus they will go astray by neglecting an obligation that
God has revealed. The penalty of rajam is applicable in
the book of God to whoever commits adultery, male or female, and
is already married and the crime is established by witnesses,
pregnancy or confession (Bukhari, Book: "The punishment of those
who..." Chapter: "The rajam of a married lady whose adultery
is established by pregnancy").
There is no reasonable explanation in sight as to
why the verse whose existence is alleged in this second version is
not there in our copies of the Qur’an if it was once part of the
Qur’an. By whom or why or how it was removed from the original
Qur’an and why it was not rewritten if companions like `Umar knew of
its presence in the Qur’an and if they approved the law that it
prescribed. But we can easily provide a reasonable explanation of
how the tradition alleging the existence of the verse came to be
formed.
Notice that both versions talk about people who
will object to the penalty of stoning on the grounds that the Qur’an
does not mention it. This suggests that we are dealing here with a
controversy between the supporters and opponents of the penalty. The
opponents reject the penalty because it is nowhere found in the
Qur’an. The fact that both versions say that the objection of the
opponents will be raised after a long time suggests that we
are not dealing here with the time of `Umar. Rather the traditions
in question arose out of much later legal controversies about the
penalty for adultery. The objective of these traditions is to
counter a strong objection against the stoning penalty. Apparently,
this objection was met with increasing force as the time passed, as
we can see by comparing the two versions.
In the first version there is no mention of the
verse about stoning. We are only told in vague terms that the
penalty was "revealed" (anzla) by God. This was obviously not
enough to support the stoning penalty as long as the verse was not
found in the Qur’an. Hence in the second version it is asserted that
"a part of what God revealed was the verse of stoning and we did
recite it, understood it, and memorized it". These words are not
found in the first version. Also, in the first version the
opponents of stoning penalty say only:
"We do not find stoning
mentioned in the book of God."
In the second version this becomes:
"We do not find the verse
of stoning in the book of God."
Note also that in the first version it is said
only that:
"The penalty of stoning is
applicable to...”
In the second version it becomes:
"The penalty of stoning is
applicable in the book of God to…."
Clearly as we move from the
first version to the second a Qur’anic verse about stoning is
created as a fact. If we trace the history
of the tradition still further we find that some people did not find
even this enough. They actually produced a
verse commanding the stoning penalty.
The next step would have been to add this
verse to the text of the Qur’an. But this nobody could do, for the
received text was so well established that none of the supporters of
the stoning penalty had the necessary authority to change it.
Moreover, while many Muslims were willing to tolerate mere
allegations of the existence of such a verse, they would not have
accepted an actual addition to the Qur’an.
Nevertheless the supporters of the stoning
penalty won the day. The reason is not hard to find: To oppose the
penalty would be generally regarded as being soft on adultery, and
not many wanted to appear in that light. At the same time many
trusting Muslims were misled by the traditions which used the
authority of `Umar and then the Prophet and the Book of God to
support the stoning penalty. In this way the penalty and the
traditions about it supported each other and helped to establish
both. At one point in time it became difficult to deny the
traditions about the stoning verse and they became part of the
canonical collections. Then some scholars came up with the concepts
of mansukh al-tilawah (abrogated in respect to recitation)
and mansukh al-`amal, (abrogated in respect to practice). It
was said that the verse about stoning was mansukh al-tilawah
not mansukh al-`amal. That is, one could no longer recite the
verse as part of the Qur’an but one was nevertheless obligated to
act upon it, a rather absurd position.
Other allegations
There are also other traditions which allege that
such and such a verse was once part of the Qur'an or that such and
such a verse or phrase was read in this or that way (see examples in
Appendix II). To the extent such variants only consist of
punctuating, pronouncing or supplying with vowels or dots
differently, they can be given some credibility (see Appendix II).
But when they imply change in the consonantal text without
manuscript evidence, they have no credibility. This is depite the
fact that traditional Muslim opinion is somewhat ambiguous on this
matter.
On the one hand, almost all Muslim scholars agree
that a reading is acceptable only if it fulfills the following
conditions: 1) correctness according to the rules of Arabic
language; 2) agreement with the written text of 'Uthman; and 3)
existence of an unbroken and reliable chain of transmission going
back to the Holy Prophet. Abu al-Khayr bin al-Jazari (d.833 H)
stated these conditions with some nuances as follows: “Every reading
in accordance with Arabic (language) even if in some
(reasonable) way, and in accordance with one of the masahif
of 'Uthman, even if with some (reasonable) probability, and with
sound chain of transmission, is a sahih (sound) reading,
which must not be rejected, and may not be denied, but it belongs to
the seven ahruf according to which the Qur'an was revealed,
and the people are obliged to accept it, no matter whether it is
from the seven imams (of qira`ah), or the ten or from other
accepted imams, but when one of these three conditions is not
fulfilled, it must be rejected as da‘if (weak)
or shadh (exceptional) or batil
(void), no matter whether it is from the seven or from one who is
older than them” (Suyuti, al-Itqan). The second of these
three conditions clearly excludes variants of the consonantal
text that have no manuscript support
Yet on the other hand, many scholars still give
legitimacy to the variants alleged without manuscript support. They
manage to do so by the hypothesis that readings alleged in the
traditions without manuscript support were either abrogated or they
are still in force but they cannot be recited; they can only be used
in the tafsir of the Qur'an. This view, as we already noted
in case of the stoning verse, is irrational. Its only purpose is to
conserve the validity of the generally accepted ahadith. Not only it
makes too convenient a use of the concept of abrogation but it also
makes a highly artificial distinction between parts of the Qur'anic
revelation that can be recited and parts of the same
revelation that cannot be recited even if they are still in force.
Why were the alleged variants not preserved in the written text or
in the continuous tradition of recitation, if they are part the
revelation and are still in force?
It is noteworthy that the Qur'an often repeats
the same verses with some slight variation in wording, sometimes the
variation adding no significant new idea (see, e.g., 2:62, 5:69). So
if it was important to state some other verses in more than one way
in order to bring some new angle to the meaning, the Qur'an could
similarly have repeated them with the required variation in wording.
There was no need for having variant readings that were excluded
from both from the text and from the tradition of recitation.
A fallacious way of looking at traditions
One common but mistaken way to interpret the
various traditions discussed above is to say that although each
given tradition is called into question by valid reasons, they all
have in common the idea that the Qur'an underwent some changes after
the Prophet and some historical truth must lie behind this common
idea. This fallacious way of interpreting traditions, which is often
applied when there is a large number of traditions of a particular
type, ignores the way people create stories and traditions. It is a
very common occurrence that misunderstanding, fraud, wishful
thinking, rivalry, political differences, sectarian motives, and
other similar factors create a story out of nothing and this story
then generates a whole set of other stories. We cannot, therefore,
establish facts on the basis of number and variety of stories having
a common element. Otherwise, we would have to accept that Jesus was
illegitimate, or he traveled to Tibet or that Elvis Presley is alive
or that flying saucers and aliens regularly visit our planet. The
reliability of a set of traditions is no more than the reliability
of the most reliable of the individual reports.
Non-Muslim
scholars
If the traditions about the “collection” and
transmission of the Qur'an have put Muslims in the awkward position
of defending those traditions and at the same time maintaining that
the Qur'an has been faithfully transmitted, they have misled some
non-Muslim students of Islam to deny the faithful transmission of
the Qur'an. These writers are caught by a nagging feeling that there
must be something more to the transmission of the Qur'an than the
verifiable facts show and they want to discover that “something
more”. Arthur Jeffrey spent years collecting data for a critical
edition of the Qur'an, and in 1926 agreed to work with Professor B.
Strasar to collect an archive that would serve as a future
foundation for a history of the development of the text of the
Qur'an. Seventy five years have passed and nothing has so far
appeared in print.
It seems some of the non-Muslim students of Islam
are misled by the traditions about the “collection” and
transmission of the Qur'an because they want to be misled.
They find in these traditions material for their agenda against
Islam and are, as it were, afraid to subject them to critical
analysis, lest they are deprived of amunition against Islam.
Since the doubts raised by the relatively late
and mutually contradictory traditions are not consistent with any
hard manuscript evidence, there is among many non-Muslim scholars a
hope that one day some discovery will provide such evidence and
prove their suspicion right. Therefore after the discovery in 1972
of some documents in Sana`a, Yemen, including many fragments of the
Qur'an, some felt that finally they might have found the hard
evidence that they were waiting for. They made big claims, but
almost three decades after the discovery nothing substantial seems
to have been found to prove their contention.
Some scholars, however, had decided not to wait
for any hard evidence to be discovered. One among them, Wansbrough,
went ahead and published his “tentative” and “conjectural” theory
any way, and the same is the case with Crone and Cook, although they
do not seem to have either the perceptiveness or the honesty to
admit to the tentative and conjectural nature of their views, as did
Wansbrough. It is perhaps about these orientalists that Professor A.
Jones of Oxford has said that "the varying views of orientalists [on
the the completeness and order of the Qur'an] are a mixture of
prejudice and speculation" (Cambridge History of Arabic
Literature: Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period.
p. 240).
But along with such orientalists, throughout the
past century and a half there also have been non-Muslim scholars who
were able to focus on the existing hard evidence and were not misled
by the gossip-type traditions from the past or hopes of discoveries
in the future. They therefore reached the only logical conclusion
that is possible: the Qur'an as we have it today is the Qur'an as it
was left by the Holy Prophet for his followers. Thus Dr. John Burton
in a book based on his Ph. D. thesis says:
The single vigorous Qur'an
text that throughout the ages has successfully withstood the
assaults of both the exegetes and the usulis, stoutly
retaining its textual identity in the face of countless attempts to
insinuate interpolations through exploitation of the alleged codex
of this or that Companion, is none other than the unique text of the
revelations whose existence all their tricks betoken, the text
which has come down to us in the form in which it was organized and
approved by the Prophet ... (emphasis mine) (Collection of
the Qur'an, 1977).
About hundred years before Burton, another
Christian writer, R. Bosworth Smith, reached exactly the same
conclusion:
In the Koran we have, beyond
doubt, the exact words of Muhammad without subtraction and without
addition (Muhammad and Muhammadanism, 1874, p. 21).
See also Appendix II for similar statements of
some other non-Muslim scholars.
Scholarly opinions on most issues are subject to
wild variations, yet it is significant that many of the non-Muslim
scholars, some of them well recognized, have affirmed the
authenticity of the Qur'anic text. The significance of this fact can
be fully appreciated if we keep in mind that there are hardly any
reputable non-believing scholars who think that the gospels
preserve faithfully what Jesus said or did.
The Hadith
As noted earlier the revelation received by the
Prophet Muhammad was transmitted in two forms: the Qur'an and the
reports of his extra-Qur'anic words and actions in the Hadith. The
Hadith consists of a variety of traditions, often found in several
different versions. Muslims have always recognized that many
traditions are unauthentic either in part or in full. Yet they have
carefully preserved all kinds of conflicting, problematic, and
unreliable traditions. This shows that had there been any different
texts of the Qur'an, Muslims would have preserved them also. This
allows us to see in yet another way that if today there is
essentially one text of the Qur'an, it is because there never was
any other.
In order to deal with the fact that many
traditions were unreliable, Muslims developed a whole science to
separate the authentic traditions from the unauthentic. The results
of these earlier generation of Muslim researchers are taken by many
Muslims as dependable enough but there is also a feeling buried in
the Muslim psyche that these results, like the results of any
science are subject to revision. What is
revelatory is what the Messenger of God taught by words and example
and not the process of discovering his words and example.
Consequently, any time Muslim scholars can engage in fresh research
in Hadith and may radically revise the conclusions of earlier
scholars. Of course, at an individual and somewhat limited level
such research has always been going on and still goes on. In a
forthcoming book,
The Sacred Hadith Project, I am arguing for the need for Muslims
to undertake this research in a comprehensive and systematic way.
When this will be done, I think, it will appear that the
authenticity of many presently accepted ahadith is no better than
the authenticity of the historical traditions about the collection
of the Qur'an that I have considered above.
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