Buddhist
and Hindu Tantras
by Octavian Sarbatoare (BA USyd)
One
classification divides Vajrayana in four classes, namely
Kriya Tantra, Carya Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Annuttara
Tantra. As the Tibetan tradition stipulates, the four
Tantras are in relation to the main classes of human
characters. Tantrism evolved in two main areas, one
in North-West of India bordering Afghanistan, the other in Assam and Bengal. (ibid., pp. 206-207).
There have been various waves of Tantric diffusion into Tibet
coming from India. However, Tantras of highly esoteric
nature were first introduced during the reign of King
Khri-sron lde-btsan (742-797 AD), the most relevant
figure being Lo-tsa-ba Vairocana. A large number of
Tantras are said to be translated by him. Other scholars
like Lo-tsa-ba Rin-chen bzan-po, after finishing their
studies in India, brought with them freshly translated Tantric works and new material for further translations
(note 3). An important issue was to prove the validity of the Tantric teachings and justify them as teachings coming
from the doctrines of Buddha.
An effective ways to justify Vajrayana was
to create prophetic lines containing allusions to the
advent of the Vajrayana and the names of adepts in
the distant future, then attribute these prophecies to Buddha himself. Various
Sutras were use to justify
the existence of Vajrayana as Buddha has turned The Wheel
of the Law of Cause, consequently Vajrayana becoming a product of the
turning (note 4). In Kalacakra Tantra, Buddha gives to
people a Yoga that is capable to save them from the
illness of the Kali Yuga, the 'dark-age' of humanity. There Buddha
elaborates a parallel between the big Cosmos that is the
world around us and the little Cosmos, that is the human
body. Thus Buddha explains the importance of sexuality
and the control of breath associated with it in order to
escape the grip of time (ibid., p. 209). Various other
works elaborate on the Tantric principles and practices.
The most celebrated work in Tantric Buddhism is seen to
be Guhyasamaja Tantra assigned to Asanga in the 4th c.
(ibid., p. 206). This work is quite controversial as
outrageous practices like steeling, eating human flesh,
etc., are permitted in order to obtain enlightenment. As
the work is one at the beginning of the Tantric Buddhism,
there is a high chance of various interpolations into the
original text as Asanga is seen a personality of great
refinement who was unlikely to produce the work entirely
that appears to us today. Over centuries, various
commentary works on GT were produced for the idea that
masters have to explain the meaning behind GT secret
form. The chief commentary on the GT in the Tibetan
tradition is largely seen to be the Pradipoddyotana by
the Tantric author Candrakirti. This work contains forty
verses, as edited by Derge Tanjur edition and from the
Tantra Vajramala in the Peking Tibetan Tripitaka edition
(Wayman, A., 1991, p. 2). They deal with the root of
material existence, the knowledge, the senses, and bring
some classifications into the matter, thus:
"E" is the Noble Woman (sati) Prajna, the moments of aversion, and so on. This root is
designated as the experience in the three worlds." (1)
"That vijnana (knowledge) called 'means'
(upaya), attended with begetting of desire, and so on,
appears like an emerging bamboo." (2)
"The vijnana heard here has
characteristics of the three lights. This is entirely the
root of the prakriti (nature) of the sentient-being
realm." (5)
"While each and every sense organ is
going by itself toward its own sense object, whatever be
the sense organ and its range, each of them is 'light
only' (abhasamatra)." (20)
Discrimination and the gradual steps of acquisition are briefly stated
in verse 25 thus:
"Thought (citta), thought derivative
(caitasika), and nescience (avidya), are also called
respectively Insight (prajna), Means (upaya), Culmination
(upalabdhika), as well as Void (shunya), Further Void
(atishunya), and Great Void (mahashunya)."
The result of knowledge and practice by sadhaka
(practitioner) is further states in verse 26 thus:
"Then, knowing the differences of the
prakriti and the Light, one should engage in the carya,
abandoning the body of works (karmakaya), he would obtain
the diamond body (vajradeha)."
Although Pradipoddyotana writings claims to bring light
into the knowledge of GT it was not easy to
comprehend the dense specific terminology of the cryptic verses.
A broader terminology was later employed once Tantra
spread in many areas thus encountering different local cultures. It has to
intermingle with local practices, as has happened in parts of Tibet, China and Japan. Particularly in
Tibet are such practices known as Nying-ma ('Old Translation
Order'). Elaborated practices were used for requiring external
preparations in a rigorous manner. A practitioner needed strong motivation and certain conditions
to fulfil before being introduced to the secrets.
Internal preparations
were also of great importance, mind's set-up towards the goal, the cutting
of attachment, devotional attitude towards one's preceptor (Guru), etc.,
were essential. The vision was of greater and greater perfection, as sadhaka
progresses from one step to the other, the mastering of meditation being an
essential tool. This is how lama Khetsun Sangpo
Rinbochay spoke at a gathering in Dharmsala, India during
1972 about a certain disciple Mi-la-re-ba who failed to
bring awareness into his practices (Rinbochay Sangpo, K,
1996, p. 187):
"When Mi-la-re-ba was first taught the
Great Perfection, he thought he could attain Buddhahood
without meditation. He remained relaxed without
meditating, and thus attained no mental development.
Therefore when his lama tested him and found that he had
no progress, he said, 'I have made a mistake. Though the
Great Perfection is indeed inconceivable, you are too lax
and not fitted for this easy doctrine. You will have to
proceed with great difficulty on the gradual path."
In Japan, Tantrism has adopted the form known as shingon
mikkyo (better known as shingon) meaning 'true word of
secret teaching'. The secret teaching refers to Mantrayana,
and all the techniques that employ Mantra (magic formula)
practices in an extended ways. Japanese Tantric
Buddhism was systematised by Kukai (774-835) known also
as Kobo Daishi. His version of Buddhism is based on
Mahayana philosophy of Madhyamika and Yogacara. Its
purpose was the integration of man with Dharmakaya
Mahavairocana (that is Buddha himself), through symbolic
and iconographic representations and Tantric practices of
mantras, mudras and various yogic meditation techniques
(Kiyota, 1978, pp. 27-29).
Hindu Tantra
In Hinduism, the raising of the Mother cults propitiated the
religious ascendency of Shakti, the cosmic force. Shakti as epiphany of
the Great Goddess becomes a central point of Hindu
Tantra. As representative of the mysteries of creation,
the Great Goddess became the personification of the feminine principle.
Her union
with Shiva representing the embodiment of consciousness was the key
point of spiritual liberation, the Tantric way. Thus, two distinct branches of Hindu Tantras emerged, the right-hand path known as Dakshina Marga
and the left-hand path, known as Vama Marga. While Dakshina Marga is
based on worshipping by chanting and various means of devotional attitude,
Vama Marga, along with devotional expressions, does allow the usage of sexual union (Maithuna) (note 5) as a fundamental practice to
obtain enlightenment.
Tantric scriptures give various accounts of why Tantra is considered a
valid spiritual way of self-realization or
liberation (Mukti). Accounts of the
prevalence of the Kali Yuga point out Tantra as a major tool towards enlightenment.
During Kali Yuga Tantra appears to play an important role during
this decadent age. Lord Shiva Himself describes the framework of Kali Yuga
thus: "For the
benefit of men of the Kali Yuga, men bereft of energy and
dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula
(i.e. Tantra) doctrine, O Auspicious One! is given"
(Avalon, 1972, p. 194; Ch. IX., 12). Furthermore, Lord
Shiva proclaims that "In this age the Mantras of the Tantras are efficacious, yield
immediate fruit, and are auspicious for Japa, Yajna, and
all such practices and ceremonies. The Vedic rites and
Mantras which were efficacious in the Satya Yuga, have
ceased to be so in this." (ibid., pp. 16-17; Ch. I.,
14-15).
The practice of Vama Tantra (known also as Kaula Tantra) doctrine becomes a rite of passage, a way
to overcome the 'dark age' of the present humanity, its followers known as Tantrikas
could be named spiritually
accomplished persons. This is how MNT describes those
followers of Tantra doctrine living in the Kali Age:
"The Kali Age cannot harm those who are purified by
truth, who have conquered their passions and senses, who
are open in their ways, without deceit, are compassionate
and follow the Kaula doctrine. The Kali Age cannot harm
those who are devoted to the services of their Guru, to
the lotus of their mothers' feet, and to their own wives.
The Kali age cannot harm those who are vowed to and
grounded in truth, adherents of the true Dharma, and
faithful to the performance of Kaulika rites and
duties." (ibid., p. 53; Ch. IV, 57-59).
Therefore, the conquering of passions
and senses is of primal importance. What makes the Tantric spiritual
path most
unusual in comparison to other spiritual direction is that the
instrumentality of human senses is used to master them, diminish their
power and eventually eradicate their craving for fulfilment. Thus the
quest for liberation starts by taking care of the body. All bodily functions
are to participate in the process of awakening, the ascetic behaviour
being rejected.
A Tantrika (of the left
path) could be ritually engaged in the Panca Makaras practices
("the five M's") a form
of Upasana ('ritual worship') using Madya (wine), Mamsa (meat), Matsya (fish), Mudra
(parched cereals) and Maithuna (sexual union) as its ingredients. For
advanced stages of spiritual practice the Panca Makaras are symbolically
describing as different stages in the Pranayama practice i.e.
Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. Thus the
result behind Panca Makaras ordinary meaning is the
transcendence of human addictions by using the very
objects of addictions in the initial stages. Such practices were subject
to specific Tantric rituals.
This is how Mookerjee & Khanna (1993, p. 165)
describe the ideas behind the Tantric ritual:
" In all respects the ritual is confined
to being an expressive encounter in visible and
intelligible forms, in a relationship which yields
satiety through a series of personifications,
transformations, visualizations, identity and
transference rituals. As the ritual gather momentum the
play of creative imagination and feeling are brought into
focus by empathy; through this apprehension, both the
male and the female partners are seen 'anew' by each
other and they move together towards the fulfilment of
unity". Furthermore, "The ritual is performed
with a partner who is considered the reflection of
Shakti, and unless the adept has the attitude of complete
surrender to the object of his worship, in this case the
female participant who plays the role of the divine
energy, the practice of asana (the sexual position)
cannot be successful."
Tantra doctrine allowing sexual practices is portrayed as a vehicle of transcendence.
The Yogic techniques are extensively used for being interrelated with Tantric
practices. It is in
Hindu Tantra that the concept of kundalini is firmly
established.
Kundalini is seen as the
evolutionary energy as power/ force resting at the base
of the spinal column where it is described as being
coiled three and a half times around svayambhu
linga. When kundalini
is raised up through the sushumna nadi
the higher levels of consciousness are experienced as the
cakras are activated until kundalini
reaches sahasrara cakra in order
to be united with Shiva, the end of journey. This can be
a terrifying experience. Swami Satyananda Saraswati of Deoghar (1985, p. 119)
gives a basic kundalini experience
as kundalini (known also as 'the
serpent power') arises thus:
"The serpent power is filled with divine
powers at the time of awakening; when aroused it remains
in an angry mood; in its waking, the state of the
individual self is suppressed; in that state, the force
moves unobstructed. At the time of its awakening, visions
of gods are seen; visions of spirits are seen; the past
is seen, impurities are visualized."
Furthermore when kundalini merges
in sahasrara "great peace and contentment
are experienced; the sadhaka feels full within; no
desires remain; no actions remain; no attachment, no
sentiments" (ibid., p. 120). Avalon
(1975, pp. 282-283) describes what follows thus:
"After union with Shiva, kundalini makes
Her return journey. After She has repeatedly gone to Him,
She makes a journey from which, at the will of the yogi,
there is no return. Then the sadhaka is a
jivanmukta." (note 6).
Comparative
approach and conclusion
Buddhist and Hindu Tantras have distinct terminology
although the basic roots are similar, that of the cults of
the Great Goddess. The two Tantras evolved separately. The Hindu Tantra
maintained various practices of Dravidian and aboriginal India, the populations
Aryans encounter during their advent in India.
In own turn the Buddhist Tantras absorbed a variety of local practices by spreading from Tibet up to Japan. A central issue in Buddhist Tantra was the justification of its practices from the doctrines of Buddha, that is a spiritual emanation from a founder of a religion, whereas Hindu Tantra did not need for such a justification, being a credo without founder.
Hindu Tantra had an interrupted tradition
enriched by the culture of Aryans, being confined within India only. The Buddhist
Tantra was modified by the influence of local cultures where is has landed,
either in Tibet, China or Japan. That is why there are many forms of Buddhist Tantras, whereas
the Hindu Tantra is without doubt more homogenous.
I hope this paper made a good argument by giving valuable information
for the readers to pursue future studies (note 7).
NOTES
1. tanyate, vistaryate jnanam anena iti
tantram
2. Excellent information on Tantra literature can be found in Banerji, S.C. A Brief History of Tantra Literature, Naya Prakash, Calcutta, 1988
3. Ref. Samten G. Karmay in his article King Tsa/Dza and Vajrayana p. 192 in Strickmann, M. (1981)
4. Ref. Samten G. Karmay in his article King Tsa/Dza and Vajrayana p. 197 in Strickmann, M. (1981)
5. Maithuna Lit. 'coupling, union' is the symbolic union of Shakti (energy) and Shiva (consciousness) It has three Rupas (forms) namely Sthula, Sukshma and Karana. The Sthula Maithuna (gross union) is the sexual union, the Sukshma Maithuna is the union of Pranas (energies), the Karana Maithuna is the union of Kundalini Shakti with Shiva as a culmination of Tantric practices.
6. jivanmukta i.e. a person liberated while still alive
7. For future studies a good
recommendation is Hopkins, J. is The Tantric Distinction, An
Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, Wisdom
Publications, London, 1985.
For deepening the Buddhist Tantra a work of reference is by Wayman, A. The
Buddhist Tantras, Routledge & Kegan Paul
Ltd., London, 1973.
For Tantra in Tibet the readers should consult Samuel G.
(ed.) Tantra and the Popular Religion in Tibet,
International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya
Prakashan, New Delhi, 1994.
For learning the usage of symbols in Tantra an excellent publication is by
Khanna Madhu, Yantra, The Tantric Symbol of
Cosmic Unity, London, Thames and Hudson Ltd.,
1994
For basic principles of Tantra an authoritative work is by
Woodroffe J. Sir (alias Arthur Avalon), Principles
of Tantra Part I and Part II, Madras, Ganesh
& Company, 1991
REFERENCES
Avalon A. (tr.), Tantra of the Great
Liberation (Mahanirvana Tantra), New York,
Dover Publications, Inc., 1972
Avalon, A. The Serpent Power, Dover Publications Inc., New York, 1975
Eliade, M. Le Yoga, Immortalité et Liberté, Payot, 1954
Kiyota Minoru, Shingon Buddhism: Theory and Practice, Buddhist Books International, Los Angeles-Tokyo, 1978
Mookerjee A. & Khanna M., The Tantric Way, Art, Science, Ritual, London, Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993
Rinbochay Sangpo, K. Tantric Practice in Nying-ma, Snow Lion Publications, New York, 1996
Satyananda Saraswati, S. Taming the Kundalini, Satyananda Ashram, Gosford, 1985
Strickmann, M. (ed.) Tantric and Taoist Studies, Institut belge des hautes études chinoises, Bruxelles, 1981
Wayman, A. Yoga of the
Guhyasamajatantra, Motilal Banarsidas
Publishers, Delhi, 1991
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GT Guhyasamajatantra
MNT Mahanirvana Tantra
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and subsequent years by Octavian
Sarbatoare - Australia
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